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+%!TEX TS-program = lualatex
+\documentclass[headings=normal,11pt]{scrartcl}
+
+\usepackage[english]{babel}
+\usepackage{fontspec}
+\usepackage{libertine}
+\usepackage{microtype}
+
+\usepackage[backend=biber,style=authoryear]{biblatex}
+\usepackage[babel]{csquotes}
+
+\usepackage[total={15cm,23cm},centering,
+]{geometry}
+
+
+
+\usepackage{booktabs}
+\usepackage{multirow}
+\usepackage{multicol}
+\usepackage{authblk}
+
+\usepackage{todonotes}
+
+\usepackage{linguex}
+\let\eachwordone=\itshape
+\renewcommand{\firstrefdash}{}
+
+\usepackage{leipzig}
+\include{leipzig-addons}
+\makeglossaries
+
+\usepackage{lipsum}
+\usepackage{jambox}
+
+% Url font-style
+\urlstyle{rm}
+
+% Citation page number format
+\renewcommand{\postnotedelim}{:\,}
+\DeclareFieldFormat{postnote}{\addcomma\addspace#1}
+\DeclareFieldFormat{multipostnote}{#1}
+\DeclareFieldFormat{pages}{#1}
+\DeclareFieldFormat{volcitepages}{#1}
+\DeclareFieldFormat{volcitevolume}{\addspace#1}
+
+
+\addtokomafont{title}{\large}
+
+\addbibresource{reflexives.bib}
+
+\frenchspacing
+
+\usepackage{hyperref}
+
+\title{Evidence for Britain and Ireland\\ as a linguistic area}
+\subtitle{Supporting online material 1: Linguistic data}
+\author[1]{Stefan Dedio}
+\author[2]{Peter Ranacher}
+\author[1]{Paul Widmer}
+\affil[1]{Department of Comparative Linguistics, University of Zurich}
+\affil[2]{Department of Geography, University of Zurich}
+\date{}
+
+\begin{document}
+
+\maketitle
+\tableofcontents
+
+
+\newpage
+\section{Variables}
+
+\begin{description}
+\item[positional dependency] Is the position of the reflexive marker dependent on the position of the verb? I.e. is there a rule that the marker must be placed relative to the verb? This includes basic rules like ‘the reflexive marker is the innermost marker left of the verbal root’ or more complex ones like ‘with regular inflected verbs, the marker is in slot 3 of the verbal template, but in slot 1 with infinitives.’ 
+
+In Middle Welsh \Next[a], the position of the reflexive marker \emph{ym-} is determined by the position of the verb, whereas, e.g., the Icelandic reflexive pronoun can be positioned freely \Next[b-c].\footnote{Abbreviations used in glosses: \printglossary[style=inline,type=\leipzigtype]}
+
+\ex. \ag. na-ry-ym-wel-ssynt\\
+\Neg-\Pst-\Refl-see-\Plup.\Tpl{}\\
+‘they had not see each other’\jambox{\parencite[Llanstephan 1, 147;][]{rhg13}}
+\bg. ég skammast mín\\
+\Fsg.\Nom{} be~ashamed.\Prs.\Sg{} \Fsg.\Gen{}\\
+‘I am ashamed’\jambox{\parencite[105]{kress1982}}
+\bg. Sér þvoði María fyrr í~dag\\
+\Refl.\Third.\Dat{} wash.\Pst.\Tsg{} M.\Nom{} earlier today\\
+‘María washed earlier today’\jambox{\parencite[109]{jonsson2011}}
+
+\item[stress] Can the reflexive marker establish its own stress domain?
+We have opted for splitting stress and phonological interaction into two values as stress domains tend to be larger than other domains of phonological and prosodic interaction \parencite[72]{bickeletal2009} and this distinction helps capturing variation in our data. 
+
+The O-pronouns used in Old English to denote reflexivity \Next[a] establish their own stress domain, i.e. theyneed not attach to another stressed formant, while the medio-passive verbal endings of Old Norse \Next[b] always attach to a fully stressed verb.
+
+\ex. \ag. hi hie þa up ahofon\\
+\Tpl.\Nom{} \Tpl.\Acc{} then up raise.\Pst.\Pl{}\\
+‘then, they raised themselves’\jambox{\parencite[94.34]{sweet1883}}
+\bg. bjó-sk hann þá til hólmgǫngu\\
+prepare.\Pst-\Second/\Tsg.\Med.\Pass{} \Tsg.\M{} then to duel.\Gen.\Sg{}\\
+‘he then prepared for the duel’\jambox{\parencite[235.21]{jonsson1924}}
+
+\item[interaction] Does the reflexive marker interact phonologically with surrounding linguistic items (i.e. vowel harmony, liaison, mutations etc.)? This includes the whole range of phonological integration like syllabification patterns, vowel harmony phenomena, liaison, etc. but excludes stress (s. above).
+
+A case without interaction are the Standard British English X\emph{-self}-reflexives \Next[a]. The O-markers used in Old Irish mutate following initial consonants and take part in syllabification processes operating left of the formant \Next[b].
+
+\ex. \a. \emph{He hit himself.}
+\bg. no-m·ísligur\\
+∅-\Fsg.\Parg·abase.\Prs.\Fsg\\
+‘I abase myself’\jambox{\parencite[17d22]{wb}}
+
+\item[allomorphy] Does the reflexive marker display phonologically, morphologically, syntactically or lexically conditioned allomorphy if all relevant features (i.e. number, person, case, TAM of the verb) remain the same? 
+
+The prime example of a construction with no allomorphy what so ever is the Low German Dialect of Dithmarschen that uses the marker \emph{sik} in all positions and with all possible formants \Next[a]. The Old Irish \Parg-pronouns employed as reflexive markers alternate according to the element preceding them and to the sentence type (main clause/subordinate clause, positive/negative) \Next[b-c]. Purely phonological alternations are considered under \emph{interaction}.
+
+\ex. \ag. Wir wüllt sik eerst~mol waschen.\\
+\Fpl.\Aarg{} want.\Prs.\Pl{} \Refl{} first wash.\Inf{}\\
+‘We want to wash ourselves first’\jambox{\parencite[158]{lindowetal1998}}
+\bg. no-m·ísligur\\
+∅-\Fsg.\Parg·abase.\Prs.\Fsg\\
+‘I abase myself’\jambox{\parencite[17d22]{wb}}
+\bg. ar-nda·cumcabat\\
+for-\Tpl.\Parg·raise.\Prs.\Tpl{}\\
+‘in order that they may raise themselves‘\jambox{\parencite[46a12]{milansh}}
+
+\item[inflection] Is the reflexive marker specified for a) person, b) number, and/or c) case?
+
+
+
+
+\item[positioning] Where is the marker positioned with respect to the verbal root (\textsc{pre} or \textsc{post})? The marker may be positioned to the left of the verbal root or to its right or, as in some cases, both. The reciprocal marker of Modern Breton for example is strictly preverbal \Next[a], while the medio-passive endings of Old Norse are strictly postverbal \Next[b]. The \Parg-pronouns of Old English may occur on both sides of the verb \Next[c-d].
+
+\ex. \ag. me nõm ziˈven\\
+\Fsg.\Aarg{} \Refl{} defend.\Prs{}\\
+‘I defend myself’\jambox{\parencite[28]{wmffre1998}}
+\bg. bjó-sk hann þá til hólmgǫngu\\
+prepare.\Pst-\Second/\Tsg{} \Tsg.\M{} then to duel.\Gen.\Sg{}\\
+‘he then prepared for the duel’\jambox{\parencite[235.21]{jonsson1924}}
+\bg. hi hie þa up ahofon\\
+\Tpl.\Nom{} \Tpl.\Acc{} then up raise.\Pst.\Pl{}\\
+‘then, they raised themselves’\jambox{\parencite[94.34]{sweet1883}}
+\bg. Þa æteowode se deofol hine þam halgan were.\\
+then show.\Pst.\Tsg{} \Art.\Nom.\Sg{} devil.\Nom.\Sg{} \Tsg.\M.\Acc{} \Art.\Dat.\Sg{} holy.\Dat.\Sg{} man.\Dat.\Sg{}\\
+‘Then the devil showed himself to the holy man.’\jambox{\parencite[11.206–207]{godden1979}}
+
+\item[equivalence set] Does the marker form an equivalence set with passive or reciprocal? I.\,e. is the reflexive marker also used to express passives or reciprocals? Both functional overlaps are widely attested in the languages of the world and are present in our sample (e.g. the Old Norse “medio-passive” is used to form reflexives, reciprocals, and anti-passives). Like with reflexive marking in general, we do not distinguish between “normal” or “unmarked” ways to express these two functions, but also include marginal strategies. 
+
+The Modern Standard French \emph{se} construction can be used to encode all three functions \Next[a-c] while Middle Welsh X-\emph{hun(an)} is reflexive only \Next[d].
+
+\ex. \ag. Il se lave.\\
+\Tsg.\M.\Aarg{} \Third.\Refl{} wash.\Prs.\Tsg\\
+‘he washes’
+\bg. Il ne se trouvait pas de linguiste pour traduire le document.\\
+\Tsg.\M.\Aarg{} \Neg{} \Third.\Refl{} find.\Ipf.\Tsg{} \Neg{} of linguist for translate.\Inf{} \Art{} document\\
+‘You couldn't find a linguist to translate the document.’\jambox{\parencite[321]{batchelorcheblisaadi2011}}
+\bg. Alors nous nous battons?\\
+so \Fpl{} \Fpl{} beat.\Prs.\Fsg{}\\
+‘So, we’re going to fight, aren’t we?’\jambox{\parencite[583]{guentchevariviere2007}}
+\bg. o-ny-led-y du-hun\\
+if-\Neg-kill-\Npst.\Ssg{} \Ssg-\Int\\
+‘unless you kill yourself’\jambox{\parencite[10.24.35]{jones193941}}
+
+\item[expandable] Can the reflexive construction be expanded with an intensifier or a similar formant for stress, clarification or similar ends? For most languages in our sample this is identical to the reflexive–intensifier distinction variable of SAE, but we wanted this variable to have a broader scope in the event one of the languages without this distinction developed the ability to use an additional reflexive/intensifier (e.g. **\emph{I myself hurt myself}). Compare Modern Standard German \Next[a] and Standard British English \Next[b].
+
+\ex. \ag. Sie schlägt sich (selbst).\\
+\Tsg.\F.\Nom{} hit.\Tsg.\Prs{} \Refl.\Third{} \Int{}\\
+‘she hits herself’
+\b. \emph{She hits herself (*herself).}
+
+\item[third person number syncretism] Does the reflexive marker distinguish number values in the third person? With this variable, we try to capture a common variation in our data, e.g. zero differentiation with Modern High German \emph{sich} \Next[a], full differentiation like in Modern Standard English \Next[b], or is there one marker that is used for singular and plural, while there is another one that encodes plural only like in Fering, where the singular \Parg-pronoun can also be used in plural constructions \Next[c-d].
+
+\ex. \ag. Sie wäscht sich. Sie waschen sich.\\
+\Tsg.\F.\Nom{} wash.\Prs.\Tsg{} \Third.\Refl{} \Tpl{} wash.\Prs.\Tpl{} \Third.\Refl\\
+‘She washes. They wash.’
+\b. \emph{He sees himself. They see themselves.}
+\bg. Diartu sköömet ik me altu dol.\\
+Dazu schäme ich mich allzu sehr\\
+‘I'm too ashamed to do that’\jambox{\parencite[36]{arfstenvanselow}}
+\bg. jo feel ham muar (…) tu Deenemark hentonjen\\
+\Tpl.\Aarg{} feel.\Prs{} \Refl{} more {} to Denmark draw~to.\Ppl\\
+‘they feel stronger drawn towards Denmark’\jambox{\parencite[12.39]{drabek2007}}
+
+\end{description}
+
+
+\section{Insular Celtic}
+
+\subsection{Goidelic}
+
+\subsubsection{Old Irish}\label{sec.oir}
+
+Old Irish is the language spoken in Ireland, the Isle of Man and north-western Scotland between c. 700 and 900 CE \parencite[55–56]{stifter2010}. 
+
+\exg. no-m-ísligur\\
+∅-\Fsg.\Parg-abase.\Prs.\Fsg\\
+‘I abase myself’\jambox{\parencite[17d22]{wb}}
+
+It uses the referential identity of regular \Parg-markers and \Aarg-markers to encode reflexivity. These \Parg-markers occupy a fixed position in the left periphery of the verb (to the extent that semantically empty preverbal material like \emph{no-} in ex. \Last{} is added to provide the respective slot) and are part of the verb's stress domain. They trigger so-called initial mutations (segment mutations of initial sounds of following phonological material). 
+
+The \Parg-markers inflect for number and person (without number syncretism in the third person), but not for case. There are four sets of these markers, the appearence of which is determined by the item directly to its left. They cannot be used for the expression of reciprocals or passives. An additional marker \emph{féin} is used to disambiguate reflexive from transitive use of third person markers or for emphasis \parencites[179–182]{irslinger2014}[255–269]{goi}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: –\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction} 
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Middle Irish}\label{sec.mir}
+
+Middle Irish, the language spoken in Ireland, the Isle of Man, and most of Highland Scotland from c. 900 to 1250 CE, still uses the referential identity of regular \Parg-markers and \Aarg-markers as described for Old Irish (s. \ref{sec.oir}; ex. \Next[b]), but has developed the additional possibility of using free personal pronouns instead of the bound \Parg-markers \Next[a]. 
+
+\ex. \ag. in~tan tuc-ais fén tú i-sin croich\\
+when give-\Prt.\Ssg{} \Int{} \Ssg{} in-\Art{} cross\\
+‘when you gave yourself to the cross’\jambox{\parencite[172]{ph}}
+\bg. r-a-mbertaig\\
+\Pst-\Tsg.\M{}·shake.\Pst.\Tsg\\
+‘he shook himself’\jambox{\parencite[98]{orahilly1967}}
+
+The free pronouns are generally positioned postverbally (as Middle Irish is a language with rather rigid verb initial syntax) but are positionally unbound. They do not interact phonologically with surrounding material and establish their own stress domain. They display some amount of allomorphy as there are special forms used with prepositions. They inflect for number and person (without third person number syncretism) and can't be used to express passives or reciprocals. Like the bound \Parg-markers, they can be expanded by an intensifier \emph{féin} \parencites[179–181]{irslinger2014}[223, 211–2]{dottin1913}[55–56]{stifter2010}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{both}
+\item phonological interaction: ±\textsc{stress}, ±\textsc{interaction} 
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: ±\textsc{pre}, ±\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Modern Irish}
+
+Modern Irish, spoken mainly in the west of Ireland,\footnote{The data presented here are based on the dialect of Iorras Aithneach \parencite{ocurnain2007} and the Standard language.} uses a combination of oblique personal pronouns (both direct \Next[a] and indirect \Next[b]) and \emph{f(h)éin} to express reflexives.
+
+\ex. \ag. bháithinn-se mé héin le dinglis\\
+drown.\Cond.\Fsg-\Emph.\Fsg{} \Fsg{} \Refl{} tickle.\Sg\\
+‘I'd drown myself laughing’\jambox{\pvolcite{2}[1308]{ocurnain2007}}
+\bg. fuair mise balthadh bréan orm héin\\
+get.\Pst{} \Fsg.\Emph{} smell.\Sg{} putrid on.\Fsg{} \Refl{}\\
+‘I put a putrid smell on myself’\jambox{\pvolcite{2}[1308]{ocurnain2007}}
+\bg. Níor bhain se éadach a~bith dhi\\
+\Neg.\Pst{} \Pst.{extract, take, leave} \Tsg.\M{} clothes at~all to.\Tsg.\M\\
+‘He did not take off any clothes’\jambox{\pvolcite{2}[1309]{ocurnain2007}}
+
+The construction is positioned right to the verb (as Modern Irish is a relatively strict verb initial language) and its placement is not dependent on that of the verb. It can establish its own stress domain, but does not interact with surrounding linguistic material. It displays some amount of allomorphy as there are special forms of the pronoun used with prepositions. The pronoun inflects for number and person (without third person number syncretism), but not for case; the forms can't be used to form reciprocals or passives. As the former intensifier \emph{f(h)éin} (s. sections \ref{sec.mir}, \ref{sec.oir}) is now an inherent part of the construction – except for some of the rare instances where it can be omitted \Last[c] – and the whole construction is used as an intensifier, there is no way to expand the reflexive marker (\cites[132–133]{omurchu2013}[178–179]{stenson2008}; \volcite{2}[1305–1312, 3, 1890]{ocurnain2007}).
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{false}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Scottish Gaelic}
+
+Scottish Gaelic, the language spoken mainly in western Highland Scotland and the Hebrides, uses a combination of a personal pronoun and \emph{fhèin}\footnote{In some dialects, there is an additional first person variant \emph{fhìn}.} to express reflexivity.
+
+\exg. chunna mi mi-fhèin\\
+see.\Pst{} \Fsg{} \Fsg-self\\
+‘I saw myself’\jambox{\parencite[35]{lamb2002}}
+
+The placement of \textsc{pron} + \emph{fhèin} is not dependent on the verb, but as Scottish Gaelic is a rather strict VSO-language, it is always found right of the verb. The construction can establish its own stress domain and does not interact phonologically with surrounding linguistic material. Prepositions trigger some allomorphy in the pronoun. It inflects for number and person (without third person number syncretism), but not for case; it can't be used to form reciprocals or passives. As \textsc{pron} + \emph{fhèin} itself is the intensifier that would be used with a construction like this, there no way of expanding the construction \parencites[35–36]{lamb2002}[163–164]{calder1980}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{false}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Late Manx}
+
+Late Manx, a Goidelic language spoken on the Isle of Man between c. 1800 and 1974 CE, when its last native speaker died, uses a combination of personal pronoun and \emph{hene} to denote reflexivity.
+
+\exg. v'eh laccal … ceau eh~hene ayns yn keayn\\
+be.\Pst.\Tsg.\M{} want.\Vn{} {} throw.\Vn{} \Tsg.\M.\Refl{} in \Art.\Sg{} sea\\
+‘he wanted to throw himself into the sea’\jambox{\pvolcite{1}[283]{broderick1984}}
+
+The position of personal pronoun + \emph{hene} is not dependent on the verb, but Late Manx being a verb-initial language, the combination cannot occur preverbally. It establishes its own stress domain and does not interact phonologically with surrounding phonological material. There is some allomorphy triggered by prepositions. It inflects for number and person (without third person number syncretism), but not for case. It does not form reciprocals or passives, and cannot be expanded by any means (\cite[20–21]{phillips2004}; \volcite{1}[54–57, 64]{broderick1984}).
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction} 
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{false}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsection{Brittonic}
+
+\subsubsection{Middle Welsh}\label{sec.mw}
+
+Middle Welsh, the language spoken in Wales and adjacent English territories between c. 1150 and 1450 CE. It uses a preverbal reflexive marker \emph{ym-} \Next[a-b] or the combination of a possessive pronoun and a former intensifier \emph{hun(an)} \Next[c].
+
+\ex. \ag. yd-ym-dengys\\
+\Aff-\Refl-show.\Prs.\Tsg\\
+\trans ‘it reveals itself’\jambox{\parencite[Peniarth 14, 63;][]{rhg13}}
+\bg. nac-ym-hoff-a vyth dy-hun\\
+\Neg-\Refl-praise-\Imp.\Ssg{} ever \Ssg-\Int\\
+‘do not ever praise thyself’\jambox{\parencite[29.37]{lewis1923}}
+\bg. o-ny-led-y du-hun\\
+if-\Neg-kill-\Npst.\Ssg{} \Ssg-\Int\\
+‘unless you kill yourself’\jambox{\parencite[10.24.35]{jones193941}}
+\bg. na-ry-ym-wel-ssynt\\
+\Neg-\Pst-\Refl-see-\Plup.\Tpl{}\\
+‘they had not see each other’\jambox{\parencite[Llanstephan 1, 147]{rhg13}}
+
+The reflexive marker \emph{ym-} occupies a fixed position in the left periphery of the verb and is part of its stress domain. It causes a segment mutation on the left edge of the verb and takes part in vowel elision processes with linguistic material to its left. There is no allomorphy and the marker does not inflect for person, number, or case; it is also used to express reciprocity \Last[d], but not to form passives. It can be expanded by a combination of a possessive pronoun and the intensifier \emph{hun(an)}.
+
+The position of the combination of possessive pronoun and \emph{hun(an)} is not determined by the position of the verb, but the marker only occurs postverbally. It does not interact with its linguistic surroundings and establishes its own stress domain. The possessive pronoun inflects for person and number (although not in the third person) and the whole construction takes left edge case markers (usually dubbed prepositions but lacking the usual prepositional properties of governing case and the possibility for stranding). They can't be used for the formation of passives or reciprocals and they cannot be expanded in any way \parencites[189–190]{irslinger2014}[§\,98]{gmw}[143–144]{schumacher2011}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{both}
+\item phonological interaction: ±\textsc{stress}, ±\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{both}
+\item inflection: ±\textsc{number}, ±\textsc{person}, ±\textsc{case}
+\item position: ±\textsc{pre}, ±\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with ±\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{both}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Northern Welsh}
+
+Northern Welsh, the modern dialects of Welsh spoken in the northern parts of Wales, uses a combination of possessive pronoun and the reflexive \emph{hun} to express reflexivity. There are however some lexicalized remnants of the Middle Welsh construction with \emph{ym-} (section \ref{sec.mw}).
+
+\ex.
+\ag. hitio-i hun\\
+hit.\Vn-\Poss.\Tsg{} \Refl{}\\
+‘hitting him/herself’\jambox{(Iwan Rees, p.c.)}
+\bg. hitio-u hunan/hunin\\
+hit.\Vn-\Tpl{} \Refl.\Pl{}\\
+‘hitting themselves’\jambox{(Iwan Rees, p.c.)}
+
+The position of possessive + \emph{hun} or, in the plural, \emph{hunan}/\emph{hunin} is not determined by the verb, it establishes its own stress domain, but the possessive marker takes part in usual vowel elision processes if the preceding element ends in a vowel. As Northern Welsh is verb initial, \Poss{} + \emph{hun} is positioned postverbally. After certain prepositions, some of the possessive markers display allomorphy. The possessive marker inflects for person and number (without third person number syncretism), but not for case (the case markers of Middle Welsh recently developed prepositional properties); it can't be used to express reciprocals or passives. As \Poss{} + \emph{hun} is used as an intensifier, it is not possible to expand the construction any further (\cites[96–98]{king2003}[189-190]{irslinger2014}[267–269]{thomas1996}; Iwan Rees, p.c.).
+
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true} (changes after preps ending in a vowel)
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case} 
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{false}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Southern Welsh}
+
+Southern Welsh, the modern dialects of Welsh spoken in the southern parts of Wales, uses a combination of possessive pronoun and a reflexive \emph{hunan} to express reflexivity. There are however some lexicalized remnants of the Middle Welsh construction with \emph{ym-} (section \ref{sec.mw}).
+
+\ex. \ag. bwrw-i hunan\\
+hit.\Vn-\Tsg{} \Refl.\Sg{}\\
+‘hitting him/herself’\jambox{(Iwan Rees, p.c.)}
+\bg. bwrw-u hunen\\
+hit.\Vn-\Tpl{} \Refl.\Pl{}\\
+‘hitting themselves’\jambox{(Iwan Rees, p.c.)}
+
+The position of possessive + \emph{hunan} or, in the plural, \emph{hunen} is not determined by the verb, it establishes its own stress domain, but the possessive marker takes part in usual vowel elision processes if the preceding element ends in a vowel. As Northern Welsh is verb initial, \Poss{} + \emph{hunan} is positioned postverbally. After certain prepositions, some of the possessive markers display allomorphy. The possessive marker inflects for person and number (without third person number syncretism), but not for case (the case markers of Middle Welsh recently developed prepositional properties, cf. \cite[116]{borsleytallermanwillis2007}); it can't be used to express reciprocals or passives. As \Poss{} + \emph{hunan} is used as an intensifier, it is not possible to expand the construction any further (\cites[96–98]{king2003}[189-190]{irslinger2014}[267–269]{thomas1996}; Iwan Rees, p.c.).
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true} (changes after preps ending in a vowel)
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{false}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Middle Breton}\label{sec.mb}
+
+Middle Breton, the language spoken in most of Brittany between c. 1100 and 1700 CE, uses a cliticised particle \emph{em-} cognate to Welsh \emph{ym-} (section \ref{sec.mw}) and Cornish \emph{om-}/\emph{em-}/\emph{ym-} (section \ref{sec.mcorn}) to express reflexivity. It is usually preceded by an \Parg-marker coreferential with the \Aarg-marker on the verb as indicated in \Next.
+
+\ex. \ag. dich [...] e=m em=roeff to you [...] I give myself B493 an diaoul\textsubscript{i} (…) en\textsubscript{i}-em-lacas\textsubscript{i} (…) e-nn ydol\\
+\Art{} devil {} \Tsg.\Parg-\Refl-put.\Tsg.\Pst{} {} in-\Art{} idol\\
+‘the devil put himself in the idol’\jambox{\parencite[442]{ernault1888}}
+
+Like the \Parg-marker preceding it, \emph{em-} has a fixed position in the left periphery of the verb and is part of its stress domain. It causes a segment mutation on the initial sound of the following verbal root and takes part in preverbal vowel elision processes. \emph{em-} is the sole form, there is no allomorphy. The \Parg-marker adds information for person and number (without number syncretism in third person forms), but not for case; it is not used to form passives, and, in contrast to Modern Breton (section \ref{sec.mnb}), it can't form reciprocals. The reflexive can be expanded with \Poss{} + \emph{hun(an)} \parencites[271–273]{hemon1984}[187]{irslinger2014}[254–255]{leroux1957}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: –\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction} (mutation, vowel elision)
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, –\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Central Breton}\label{sec.mnb}
+
+Central Breton, the sub-dialect of Cornouaillais spoken close to the town of Carhaix-Plouguer in lower Brittany, uses the reflexive particle \emph{nõm} to denote reflexivity.
+
+\exg. me nõm ziven\\
+\Fsg.\Aarg{} \Refl{} defend.\Prs{}\\
+‘I defend myself’\jambox{\parencite[28]{wmffre1998}}
+
+The particle is placed in a fixed position directly left of the verb and is part of the verb's stress domain. It phonologically interacts with the following verbal root by causing a segment mutation of its leftmost consonant, e.g. /d/ in \emph{diven} ‘defend’ becomes /z/ in \Last. \emph{nõm} is the only marker, i.e. there is no allomorphy, and it does not inflect for number, person, or case. It can be used to denote reciprocals but not passives. An element \Poss{} + \emph{hæ̃n} can be used to expand the reflexive \parencites[27–28]{wmffre1998}[287–288]{timm1987}
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: –\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: –\textsc{number}, –\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, –\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Middle Cornish}\label{sec.mcorn}
+
+Middle Cornish, the language spoken in Cornwall between c. 1100 and 1600 CE, makes use of an affix \emph{om-}/\emph{ym-}/\emph{em-} cognate to Middle Welsh \emph{ym-} (section \ref{sec.mw}) and Middle Breton \emph{em-} (section \ref{sec.mb}).
+
+\ex. \ag. Guet-yogh om-previ manly\\
+take~care-\Imp.\Spl{} \Refl-prove.\Vn{} manly\\
+‘take care to prove yourself manly’\jambox{\parencite[1194]{meriasek}}
+\bg. rag om-sawya ow-honyn\\
+to \Refl-save.\Vn{} \Fsg-self\\
+‘to save myself’\jambox{\parencite[2374–5]{neuss1983}}
+
+The reflexive marker is positioned directly left of the verbal root and is part of its stress domain. It phonologically interacts with the initial consonant of the following verbal root, inducing a segment mutation. The variation seen in the vowel is phonological and, at least in part, orthographical and cannot be interpreted as a case of allomorphy. The marker does not inflect for number, person, or case, and can form reciprocals but not passives. An intensifier \emph{honen}, preceded by a possessive marker, can be added to expand the construction \parencites[325]{williams2011}[188–189]{irslinger2014}[5.3, 5.25, 5 n. 12]{toorians2014}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: –\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: –\textsc{number}, –\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, –\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Late Cornish}
+
+Late Cornish, spoken in Cornwall between c. 1600 and its death some time in the late 18th or early 19th century CE, uses a reflexive \emph{honen} preceded by a dependent pronominal element.
+
+\exg. hedha go-honnen\\
+stretch.\Vn{} \Tpl-\Refl\\
+‘stretching themselves’\jambox{\parencite[33]{wmffre1999}}
+
+The reflexive marker \Poss{} + \emph{honen} is positionally and phonologically unbound (the comparatively small corpus does not contain any examples of a preverbal use of the marker, but this cannot be taken as evidence against the possibilty of preverbal use), i.e. it can be positioned freely, establishes its own stress domain and does not interact phonologically with surrounding linguistic material. The form of the possessive marker changes after prepositions, and the marker can thus be said to display allomorphy. It does inflect for person and number (without third person number syncretism); it does not inflect for case. It can't be used to form reciprocals or passives. There is no intensifier or similar formant that can be added to expand the construction \parencites[33–34]{wmffre1999}[325]{williams2011}[5.3, 5.25, 5 n. 12]{toorians2014}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: ?\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{false}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\section{Germanic}
+
+\subsection{West Germanic}
+
+\subsubsection{Old English}\label{sec.oe}
+
+Old English, spoken in an area roughly identical with present day England between c. 700 and 1100 CE, uses the referential identity of \Parg-pronouns with the \Aarg-argument encoded on the verb and in overt pronouns to express reflexivity.
+
+\ex. \ag. hi hie þa up ahofon\\
+\Tpl.\Nom{} \Tpl.\Acc{} then up raise.\Pst.\Pl{}\\
+‘then, they raised themselves’\jambox{\parencite[94.34]{sweet1883}}
+\bg. Þa  æteowode se deofol hine þam halgan were.\\
+then show.\Pst.\Tsg{} \Art.\Nom.\Sg{} devil.\Nom.\Sg{} \Tsg.\M.\Acc{} \Art.\Dat.\Sg{} holy.\Dat.\Sg{} man.\Dat.\Sg{}\\
+\trans ‘Then the devil showed himself to the holy man.’\jambox{\parencite[11.206–207]{godden1979}}
+
+The \Parg-pronoun is positioned freely in the sentence and phonologically unbound – it does establish its own stress domain and does not interact phonologically with surrounding material. The pronoun inflects for person, number, and case (without number syncretism in the third person)  in a single paradigm without any allomorphy. As in more or less all Old Germanic varieties, the pronouns can also be used to encode reciprocals, but not passives. An intensifier \emph{self} can be added to expand the construction and disambiguate between reflexive and non reflexive use of third person pronouns \parencites[178]{irslinger2014}[158]{nedjalkov2007}[27–62]{vangelderen2000}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Middle English}
+
+Middle English, the language spoken in an area roughly equivalent to present day England and in some areas in southern Wales between c. 1150 and 1500, like its predecessor Old English (section \ref{sec.oe}) uses the referential identity of \Parg-pronouns and \Aarg-markers on the verb and \Aarg-pronouns to encode reflexivity.
+
+\ex. \ag. And to hym I haf me tone\\
+and to him \Fsg.\Nom{} have.\Prs.\Fsg{} \Fsg.\Acc{} take.\Ppl\\
+‘and to him I have committed myself’\jambox{\parencite[2195]{tolkiengordon1925}}
+\bg. Bot ȝet he sayde in hymself\\
+but yet \Tsg.\M{} say.\Pst{} in himself\\
+‘but still he said to himself’\jambox{\parencite[1198]{tolkiengordon1925}}
+
+The \Parg-pronoun is positioned freely in the sentence and phonologically unbound – it does establish its own stress domain and does not interact phonologically with surrounding material. The pronoun inflects for person, number, and case (without number syncretism in the third person)  in a single paradigm without any allomorphy. As in more or less all Old and medieval Germanic varieties, the pronouns can also be used to encode reciprocals, but not passives. An intensifier \emph{self} can be added to expand the construction, which is much more frequent than in Old English \parencites[119]{vangelderen2000}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Modern British English}
+
+Modern British English uses the reflexive pronouns and intensifiers \emph{myself}, \emph{yourself}, etc. to express reflexivity, but, these reflexives are ousted in middle situations by labile verbs.
+
+\ex. \a. \emph{I gave myself a present.}
+\b. \emph{I gave a present to myself.}
+
+Other than being prohibited from occupying the preverbal position which is reserved for \S- and \Aarg-pronouns, the reflexive pronoun's position is not determined by the verb. It establishes its own stress domain and does not interact phonologically with surrounding material. It inflects for number and person (without third person number syncretism), but not for case, and does not show any signs of allomorphy. It does not form passives or reciprocals and cannot be expanded \parencites[846–851]{mondorf2012}[105–106]{huddlestonepullum2005}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{false}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Older Scots}
+
+Older Scots, the language descending from northern Anglian Old English Dialects spoken in the Scottish Lowlands between c. 1150 and 1650 CE, uses the referential identity of \Parg-pronouns with the \Aarg-argument expressed by verbal endings and \Aarg-pronouns to express reflexivity.
+
+\ex. \ag. magdalene, þat fyrst hyre gaf til al delyt\\
+M. \Rel{} first \Tsg.\F.\Obl.\Refl{} give.\Pst{} to all delight\\
+‘Magdalene, who first gave herself to all delight’\jambox{\pvolcite{1}[257, 44–45]{barboursaints}}
+\bg. He mycht nocht … bryng his handis til his face to fed hyme-self\\
+\Tsg.\M.\Nom{} be\ able.\Pst{} \Neg{} {} bring.\Inf{} \Poss.\Tsg.\M{} hand.\Acc.\Pl{} to \Poss.\Tsg.\M{} face to feed \Tsg.\M.\Obl.\Refl-\Int\\
+‘He could not bring his hands to his face to feed himself.’\jambox{\pvolcite{2}[336, 1107–1109]{barboursaints}}
+
+The \Parg-pronoun is neither positionally nor phonologically bound, i.e. its position is not determined by the verb, it does not interact phonologically with surrounding material and it establishes its own stress domain. It inflects for person, number, and case without third person number syncretism in a single paradigm, i.e. not displaying any allomorphy. Like in all older and medieval Germanic varieties, the pronouns can be used to form reciprocals but not passives.They can be expanded by the addition of the intensifier \emph{-self} \parencite[170]{king1997}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Scots}
+
+Scots, the modern West Germanic language spoken in Lowland Scotland, on Orkney and Shetland, and in northern Ireland, uses reflexive pronouns formed by combining a originally possessive or dative pronoun and the reflexive element \emph{sel(s)} to encode reflexivity.
+
+\exg. Weel, it-ll no mend it-sel.\\
+well \Tsg.\N-\Fut{} \Neg{} mend \Tsg.\N-\Refl{}\\
+‘Well, it won’t mend itself.’\jambox{\parencite[100]{eagle2016}}
+
+The reflexive pronouns are positionally free but can only occur postverbally. They establish their own stress domain and do not interact phonologically with any surrounding linguistic material. There is no allomorphy. The form inflects for person and number (maintaining the number distinction in third person forms), but not for case. The forms cannot be used to encode reciprocity or passives, and the form cannot be expanded by any means \parencites[100–101]{eagle2016}[344–348]{beal1997}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{false}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Irish English}
+
+Irish English uses the same pronouns as does Standard English with slight phonological and in some cases morphological alternations in the pronominal stem used to form the reflexives.
+
+\ex. \emph{They carry theirselves decently.}\jambox{\parencite[244]{hickey2007}}
+
+The position of the reflexive is not dependent on the position of the verb, but it occurs always postverbally. They canestablish their own stress domain and do not interact phonologically with their surroundings. As the stem of the pronominal part of the reflexive varies in the same form (\emph{themselves} {\textasciitilde} \emph{theirselves}), the reflexives show allomorphy. They inflect for person and number (keeping the number distinction in the third person), but not for case. They cannot be used to form reciprocals or passives, and cannot be expanded by any form either \parencites[243–244]{hickey2007}[34–36]{amadormoreno2010}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{false}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Old Low German/Old Saxon}
+
+Old Low German or Old Saxon, the West-Germanic language spoken in northern Germany between c. 700 and 1150 CE, uses accusative and  pronouns to denote reflexivity.
+
+\exg. Nu maht thu thi an thînan uuilleon ford\\
+when do.\Prs.\Ssg{} \Ssg.\Nom{} \Ssg.\Acc{} in \Poss.\Ssg.\Acc.\Sg{} will.\Acc.\Sg{} away\\
+‘When you go away in your own will’ \jambox{(Heliand 2149)}
+
+The pronouns are free in their positioning and can stand on either side of the verb. They do not interact with their surroundings and establish their own stress domain. There seems to be no allomorphy. The forms inflect for person, number, and case, number always being distinguished in the third person forms. Like in all older and medieval Germanic varieties, the pronouns can be used to encode reciprocals but not passives. The form \emph{self} can be added to expand the construction \parencite[237–238, 241]{gallee1993}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Middle Low German}
+
+Middle Low German, the West Germanic language spoken in northern Germany between c.1200 and 1550 CE, uses oblique personal pronouns in the first and second persons and a reflexive pronoun in the third person.
+
+\exg. dat se sik des untsculdegheden.\\
+that \Tpl.\Nom{} \Refl{} \Dem.\Gen.\Sg.\N{} free~of~guilt.\Prs.\Tpl\\
+‘that they rid themselves of this guilt’ \jambox{\parencite[II 1 §23]{ebel1968}}
+
+The pronouns are positionally free and can occur on either side of the verb. They can establish their own stress domain and do not interact phonologically with the verb. There is no allomorphy. They inflect for person, number, and case, with the pronoun of the third person \emph{sik} not distinguishing number. As in more or less all older and medieval Germanic varieties, the pronouns can be used to encode reciprocity, but not passives. An intensifier \emph{self/silf/sölf/sülf} can be added to expand the construction \parencite[213–217, 219]{lasch1914}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Modern Low German (East Frisia)}\label{ostfriesisch}
+
+In the East Frisian Dialect of Modern Low German spoken in north-western Germany, the oblique pronouns of the first and second persons and a special number indifferent third person reflexive pronoun is used to denote reflexivity.
+
+\ex. \ag. Vadder rösper sük.\\
+father clear~one's~throat.\Prs{} \Refl{}\\
+‘father clears his throat’\jambox{\parencite[157]{lindowetal1998}}
+\bg. daar hett he sük sülvst an hulpen\\
+there have.\Prs.\Tsg{} \Tsg.\M.\Nom{} \Refl.\Third{} \Int{} at help.\Ptcp{}\\
+‘That’s his own fault.’\jambox{\parencite[s.v. \emph{sülvst}]{bruckmannlowgerman}}
+\bg. Dåu musn däi zük eerst tuutn un drükn.\\
+then must.\Pst.\Pl{} \Dem{} \Rec{} first kiss.\Inf{} and hug.\Inf{}\\
+‘First they had to kiss and hug.’\jambox{\parencite[26]{matrasreershemius2003}}
+
+The pronoun is not positionally dependent on the verb and is always occurring right of finite forms and left of infinitives. It does form its own stress domain and does not phonologically interact with its surroundings. There is no allomorphy. The forms inflect for number, person, and case, not distinguishing number in the third person. They can be used to form reciprocals \Last[c], but not passives. An intensifier like form \emph{sülv-} can be added to expand the construction \Last[b] \parencites[63, 69, 154–158, 276]{lindowetal1998}[22–26]{matrasreershemius2003}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Modern Low German Dithmarschen}
+
+The Modern Low German dialect spoken in the district of Dithmarschen in northern Germany uses an invariate reflexive marker \emph{sik} to express reflexivity.
+
+\exg. Wir wüllt sik eerst~mol waschen.\\
+\Fpl.\Aarg{} want.\Prs.\Pl{} \Refl{} first wash.\Inf{}\\
+‘We want to wash ourselves first’\jambox{\parencite[158]{lindowetal1998}}
+
+The behaviour of \emph{sik} is basically the same as in the dialect of East Frisia described above (section \ref{ostfriesisch}) with the difference that invariate \emph{sik} is used for all persons and numbers \parencites[63, 69, 154–158, 276]{lindowetal1998}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: –\textsc{number}, –\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Old Frisian}
+
+Old Frisian, a West Germanic language spoken in the coastel areas of present-day nort-western Germany and the northern Netherlands between c. 1200 and 1450 CE, used object pronouns to encode reflexivity.
+
+\exg. thett-er hine selwa ne muge nawet biriuchta\\
+that-\Tsg.\M.\Nom{} \Tsg.\M.\Acc{} \Int{} \Neg{} be~able.\Subj.\Prs{} \Neg{} take~care.\Inf\\
+‘that he can't take care of himself’ \jambox{\parencite[§ 88]{bumaebel1965}}
+
+The oblique personal pronouns are positionally free and can occur on either side of the verb. There is an allomorphy between cliticised (usually attaching to verbs or other pronouns, e.g. \emph{hia-ne} \Tpl.\Nom-\Tsg.\M.\Acc{}) and free forms, the former not being able to establish their own stress domain and phonologically interacting with their surroundings. They inflect for number, person, and case, number being distinguished in third person. They can encode reciprocity, but not reflexivity. An element \emph{selw-}/\emph{self-} can be added to expand the construction \parencites[131–135]{markey1981}[56]{bremmer2009}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: ±\textsc{stress}, ±\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Fering}
+
+The modern North Frisian Dialect of the Island Föhr uses the oblique/object-pronouns to express reflexivity \Next[a], but in the third person, a form \emph{sik} borrowed from Low German is sometimes used as well.
+
+\ex. \ag. Diartu sköömet ik me altu dol.\\
+Dazu schäme ich mich allzu sehr\\
+‘I'm too ashamed to do that’\jambox{\parencite[36]{arfstenvanselow}}
+\bg. uun a busem haa jo sik duad-sweet\\
+in \Art{} stable have.\Prs{} \Tpl.\Aarg{} \Refl{} dead-sweat.\Ppl{}\\
+‘They sweated like hell in the stables.’\jambox{\parencite[13.71]{drabek2007}}
+\bg. jo feel ham muar (…) tu Deenemark hentonjen\\
+\Tpl.\Aarg{} feel.\Prs{} \Refl{} more {} to Denmark draw~to.\Ppl\\
+‘they feel stronger drawn towards Denmark’\jambox{\parencite[12.39]{drabek2007}}
+\bg. man dan sprääg hi ham salew weder mud tu\\
+but then say.\Pst{} \Tsg.\M.\Aarg{} \Tsg.\M.\Parg{} \Int{} again courage to\\
+‘but then he gave himself courage’\jambox{\parencite[33]{arfstenvanselow}}
+
+The pronouns are not positionally bound to the verb and can occur postverbally. Whether they can occur before the verb cannot be inferred from the literature. They can establish their own stress domain but are often cliticised to the preceding element (usually verbs or other pronouns) in which case they do not bear stress and phonologically interact with the element they are cliticised to. There is no allomorphy. The marker usually inflects for person, number, and case, except for the Low German loan \emph{sik} and the third person form \emph{han} which is used for both singular and plural in the speech of younger speakers if used reflexively. It is not used to form passives or reciprocals. The pronouns can be expanded by adding \emph{salew} ‘self’ \parencites[294–295]{walkerwilts2001}[344]{arhammar2001}[13]{schmidtpetersencraigie1928}[49–52]{drabek2007}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: ?\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{both}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Modern West Frisian}
+
+Modern West Frisian, the modern Frisian language spoken mainly in the north-west of the Netherlands, uses object personal pronouns to express reflexivity.
+
+\ex. \ag. hja skamje har\\
+\Tpl.\Aarg{} be~ashamed.\Prs.\Tpl{} \Tpl.\Parg\\
+‘they are ashamed’\jambox{\parencite[90]{hoekstra2001}}
+\bg. heit skeart him-sels\\
+father.\Aarg{} shave.\Prs.\Tsg{} \Tsg.\M-self\\
+‘father shaves himself’\jambox{\parencite[66]{tiersma1985}}
+
+The object pronouns are free in position and can occur on either side of the verb. They can establish their own stress domain, but are often cliticised to the verb or other preceding pronouns in which case they phonologically interact with the entity they are cliticised to. There is no allomorphy. They inflect for person, number, and case (differentiating third number in third person forms); they can't be used to express reciprocity or passives. The forms can be expanded by adding \emph{sels} ‘self’ \parencites[90]{hoekstra2001}[55–6627]{tiersma1999}[86–91]{popkema2013}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Old Dutch}
+
+Old Dutch (or Old Low Franconian), a West Germanic Language spoken in the present-day Netherlands and northern Belgium between c. 650 and 1150 CE, uses oblique personal pronouns to encode reflexivity; in the third person, a loan from High German \emph{sig} sporadically occurs.
+
+\exg. thu irbulgi thi\\
+\Ssg.\Nom{} get~angry.\Pst.\Ssg{} \Ssg.\Acc\\
+‘you got angry’\jambox{\parencite[102]{quak1992}}
+
+The pronouns are not positionally bound and can occur on either side of the verb. They can establish their own stress domain and the yphonologically interact with their surroundings. There is no allomorphy. The pronouns inflect for person, number, and case, keeping the number distinction in the third person, while \emph{sig} is insensitive towards number. They can be used to form reciprocals but not passives. It cannot be inferred from teh literature, whether the constructions can be expanded in any way \parencite[100–102]{quak1992}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{?}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Middle Dutch}
+
+Middle Dutch, a West Germanic langauge spoken in the area of present day Netherlands and northern Belgium between c. 1150 and 1500 CE, uses the oblique pronouns as reflexives for all numbers and persons; the High German loan \emph{s/zich} sporadically occurs in the third person.
+
+\ex. \ag. Hie cleedde hem\\
+\Tsg.\M.\Aarg{} dress.\Pst{} \Tsg.\M.\Parg{}\\
+‘He dressed.’\jambox{\parencite[80]{vankerckevoorde1993}}
+\bg. Sij vreysden sich sonder mate\\
+\Tpl.\Aarg{} be~afraid.\Pst{} \Refl{} without limit\\
+‘They were extremely afraid.’\jambox{\parencite[80]{vankerckevoorde1993}}
+
+The pronouns and \emph{s/zich} are not positionally dependent on the verb, but it is not clear from the literature whether they can occur preverbally. They can establish their own stress domain and do not interact with their phonological surroundings. There is no allomorphy, The pronouns inflect for number, person, and case, distinguishing number in the third person, while third person \emph{s/zich} is not specified for number. They cannot be used as reciprocals or passives. An intensifier \emph{selven} can be added to expand the form \parencites[177–178]{franck1910}[79–80]{vankerckevoorde1993}[95–99]{kerckvoorde1994}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: ?\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{both} 
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Modern Dutch}
+
+In Modern Dutch, reflexivity is expressed by \Parg-pronouns in first and second persons and by a reflexive \emph{zich} in the third person.
+
+\exg. u heeft zich gewassen\\
+\Second{} \Pst.\Tsg{} \Refl{} wash.\Ppl{}\\
+‘you have washed’\jambox{\parencite[258]{donaldson2017}}
+
+The pronouns are not positionally dependent on the verb. They usually occur after finite forms and before infinitives. There are stressed and unstressed forms which are in an allomorphic relationship to each other. Some of the unstressed forms can be cliticised to the verb in which case they are syllabified with the verb. They inflect for person, number, and case, with the number indifferent form \emph{zich} in the third person. They cannot form reciprocals or passives. An intensifier \emph{-zelf} can be added to expand the construction, mainly for emphasis \parencites[66–80, 257–264]{donaldson2017}[67–69]{shetter1993}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: ±\textsc{stress}, ±\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Old High German}
+
+Old High German, a West Germanic language spoken in present day southern Germany, Switzerland and western Austria between c. 750 and 1050 CE, employs a special reflexive pronoun \textit{sīn}/\textit{sih}, which is not specified for gender, for the genitive singular and accusative cases of the third person, oblique personal pronouns for all other cases and persons.
+
+\ex. \ag. Târ erslûog síh sélben cato.\\
+	there kill.\Pst{}.\Tsg{} \Refl{} \Int{} Cato\\
+	\glt 'There Cato killed himself.' \jambox{(\href{https://korpling.german.hu-berlin.de/annis3/?id=e9457f59-08ee-43e6-a6a0-2575eb3e9ded}{Notker, Boethius, \emph{De Consolatione philosophiae} II, 103})}
+\bg. únde síh mít tíu lôsen uuóltôn\\
+and \Refl{} with \Dem.\Inst.\Sg.\N{} save.\Inf{} want.\Pst.\Tpl{}\\
+‘and wanted to save themselves with that’\jambox{(\href{https://korpling.german.hu-berlin.de/annis3/?id=473dbede-824a-44f0-9fcc-acb5f3650a2f}{Notker, Boethius, \emph{De Consolatione philosophiae} II, 102})}
+
+The pronouns are not positionally dependent on the verb and can occur on either side of it. They can establish their own stress domain; whether they interact phonologically with their surroundings cannot be inferred from the literature. There is no allomorphy. The pronouns inflect for person, number, and case, third person \emph{sih} not distinguishing number. The pronouns can be used to form reciprocals but not passives. An intensifier \emph{selb-} can be added for emphasis or clarification \parencites[241--242]{niemeyer2004ahd1}[79]{dal2014syntax}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: \textsc{+stress}, \textsc{?interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: \textsc{+number}, \textsc{+person}, \textsc{+case}
+\item position: \textsc{+pre}, \textsc{+post}
+\item equivalence set with \textsc{+reciprocal}, \textsc{–passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{both}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+
+
+\subsubsection{Middle High German}
+
+Middle High German, a West Germanic language spoken in present day southern Germany, Switzerland and western Austria between c. 1050 and 1350 CE, retains the personal pronouns and the reflexive \emph{sîn}/\textit{sich} of Old High German including their usage to encode reflexivity. 
+
+\ex. \ag. Si wolten sich erchoͧlen.\\
+	they want.\Pst{}.3\Pl{} \Refl{} cool.\Inf{}\\
+	\glt 'They wanted to cool themselves.'\jambox{(\href{https://www.linguistics.rub.de/annis3/?id=705a430c-da99-4dc1-aa98-6057ee41f991}{Die altdeutsche Exodus, 0a, 230})}
+\bg. deſ uroͮwete ſich der uater guͦte\\
+\Dem.\Gen.\Sg.\N{} rejoice.\Pst.\Tsg{} \Refl{} \Art.\Nom.\Sg{} father.\Nom.\Sg{} good.\Nom.\Sg{}\\
+‘the good father rejoiced about that’\jambox{(\href{https://www.linguistics.rub.de/annis3/?id=918e492b-a3e4-432f-839d-4f6cfbd3166f}{Die altdeutsche Exodus, 0a, 421})}
+
+The pronouns are not positionally bound and can occur on either side of the verb. There are full, lengthened, and cliticised forms, the former two being able to establish their own dtress domain. The latter phonologically interact with their surroundings. They inflect for person, number, and case, with number syncretism in the third person \emph{sch} forms. They can form reciprocals but not passives. An intensifier \emph{selp} can be added to expand the construction \parencites[31, 211-215, 222]{niemeyer2009mhd}[79]{dal2014syntax}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: \textsc{±stress}, ±\textsc{interaction} 
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{true}
+\item inflection: \textsc{+number}, \textsc{+person}, \textsc{+case}
+\item position: \textsc{+pre}, \textsc{+post}
+\item equivalence set with \textsc{+reciprocal}, \textsc{–passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{both}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+
+
+\subsubsection{Modern High German}
+
+Modern High German uses the reflexive pronoun \textit{sich} for the third person, and oblique personal pronouns for the first and second persons.
+
+\exg. Er betrachtet sich (selbst/selber) im Spiegel.\\
+	He observe.\Prs{}.\Tsg{} \Refl{} (\Int{}) in.\Art{} mirror.\Dat.\Sg{}\\
+	\glt 'He looks at himself in the mirror.'
+	
+The pronouns are not positionally bound and can occur on either side of the verb. There is no allomorphy. The pronouns can establish their own stress domain and do not interact phonologically with their surroundings. They inflect for person, number, and case, with number syncretism in the third person. They can be used to form reciprocals but not passives. An intensifier \textit{selbst}/\textit{selber} can be added to expand the construction for emphasis or clarification \parencite[267--273, 401]{duden2009grammatik}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: \textsc{+stress}, \textsc{–interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: \textsc{+number}, \textsc{+person}, \textsc{+case}
+\item position: \textsc{+pre}, \textsc{+post}
+\item equivalence set with \textsc{+reciprocal}, \textsc{–passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{false}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsection{North Germanic}
+
+\subsubsection{Old Norse}
+
+Old Norse, the language spoken in Scandinavia, present-day Denmark, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, wide parts of Britain and Ireland, Normandy, and several other parts of Europe between c. 700 and 1150 CE, uses both oblique first and second person and special third person reflexive pronouns \Next[b-c], and a medio-passive verbal marker \Next[a] to encode reflexivity.
+
+\ex. \ag. bjó-sk hann þá til hólmgǫngu\\
+prepare.\Pst-\Second/\Tsg{} \Tsg.\M{} then to duel.\Gen.\Sg{}\\
+‘he then prepared for the duel’\jambox{\parencite[235.21]{jonsson1924}}
+\bg. Flosi bjó sik austan\\
+F.\Nom{} prepare.\Pst.\Tsg{} \Refl{} from~east\\
+‘he prepared to go west’\jambox{\parencite[294.10]{jonsson1908}}
+\bg. at eigi segði hann sik þyrsta\\
+that \Neg{} say.\Pst.\Subj.\Third{} \Tsg.\M.\Nom{} \Refl{} thirsty\\
+‘that he had not declared himself thirsty’\jambox{\parencite[125.5–6]{jonsson1924}}
+
+The medio-passive marker (\emph{-sk} \Second/\Third; \emph{-k} \First) is positioned at the right edge of the verb, is part of the verb's stress domain, and phonologically interacts with it – mainly causing consonant elisions. It inflects for person and number (without third person number syncretism), but not for case. There is no allomorphy. The marker can also be used to express reciprocity and passives.
+
+The pronouns are not dependent on the position of the verb. They can stand right of the verb, but whether they can be positioned to its left does not emerge from the literature. They can establish their own stress domain and do not interact with surrounding material, not showing allomorphy either. The pronouns inflect for person and number (with third person number syncretism); they cannot be used to express reciprocity or passives. Both can be expanded by adding an element \emph{sjalf-} that inflects for person, number, and case \parencites[129]{haugen2015}[123–127]{faarlund2004}[74–75, 134–135]{nedoma2006}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{both}
+\item phonological interaction: ±\textsc{stress}, ±\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{both}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, ±\textsc{case}
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with ±\textsc{reciprocal}, ±\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{both}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Danish}
+
+Danish uses the middle voice formed with a former reflexive pronoun \emph{sig} to denote reflexives.
+
+\ex. \ag. Han slå-r sig.\\
+\Tsg.\M{} hit-\Prs{} \Med{}\\
+‘he gets hurt’\jambox{\parencite[75]{herslund2002}}
+\bg. Han slå-r sig selv\\
+\Tsg.\M{} hit-\Prs{} \Med{} self\\
+‘He hits himself’\jambox{\parencite[75]{herslund2002}}
+
+The reflexive is always positioned right of the verb and therefore positionally dependent on it. It does not interact phonologically with the verb but cannot establish its own stress domain (but it can be targeted by emphatic stress). There is no allomorphy. The marker inflects for number and person, but not for case; it can't be used to form reflexives or reciprocals. The forms can be expanded – especially in prototypical reflexive contexts – with an intensifier \emph{selv} \parencites[159–187, 343, 346–347]{lundskaernielsenholmes2010}[74–75]{herslund2002}{hvilshoj1999}[88]{basboll2005}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: –\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsubsection{Norwegian (Bokmål and Nynorsk)}
+
+Norwegian Bokmål and Nynorsk use first and second person oblique personal pronouns and third person reflexive pronouns to encode reflexivity.
+
+\exg. Han skynder seg.\\
+\Tsg.\M{} hurries.\Prs{} \Med\\
+‘He is in a hurry.’ \jambox{\parencite[340]{faarlundetal1997}}
+
+The reflexive pronouns are positioned right after the verb and therefore positionally dependent on it. They do not interact phonologically with surrounding phonological material and can establish their own stress domain. They inflect for number and person, but not for case and they do not display allomorphy. It is not possible to use them to form reciprocals or passives. They may be by expanded by \emph{selv} (Bokmål) or \emph{sjølv} (Nynorsk) \parencites[cf.][340–341]{faarlundetal1997}[333–335]{kristoffersen2000}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, –\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item positioning: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set: –\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Icelandic}
+
+Icelandic, the modern language spoken in Iceland, uses oblique first and second person pronouns and a third person reflexive as well as so-called medium verbal endings to express reflexivity.
+
+\ex. \ag. ég gleðjast\\
+\Fsg.\Nom{} please.\Prs.\Sg.\Med{}\\
+‘I am pleased’\jambox{\parencite[145]{kress1982}}
+\bg. ég skammast mín\\
+\Fsg.\Nom{} be~ashamed.\Prs.\Sg{} \Fsg.\Gen{}\\
+‘I am ashamed’\jambox{\parencite[105]{kress1982}}
+\bg. Sér þvoði María fyrr í~dag\\
+\Refl.\Third.\Dat{} wash.\Pst.\Tsg{} M.\Nom{} earlier today\\
+‘María washed earlier today’\jambox{\parencite[109]{jonsson2011}}
+
+The medium ending \emph{-st} is added at the right edge of the verb (sometimes changing place with the verbal ending, e.g. \emph{við köll-um-st} {\textasciitilde} \emph{við köll-ust-um} ‘you are called’), being part of the verbs stress domain often fusing with the verbal ending. There is no allomorphy. It does not inflect for person, number, or case; it can be used for the expression of both reflexives and reciprocals. 
+
+The pronouns can be positioned on either side of the verb \Last[b-c] and are not positionally dependent on it. They can establish their own stress domain and do not interact with surrounding material. They inflect for person, number, and case with number syncretism in the third person. There is no allomorphy and the pronouns can't be used to form reciprocals or passives. An element \emph{sjálf-} inflecting for person, number, and case can be added to expand the construction \parencites[104–105, 143–147]{kress1982}{jonsson2011}[95, 116–121]{petursson1978}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{both}
+\item phonological interaction: ±\textsc{stress}, ±\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: ±\textsc{number}, ±\textsc{person}, ±\textsc{case}
+\item position: ±\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with ±\textsc{reciprocal}, ±\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{both}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Faroese}
+
+Faroese, the modern language spoken on the Faroe Islands, uses both a synthetic verbal form (the so-called medio-passive, ex. \Next[a]) and reflexive pronouns (i.e. oblique pronouns in the first and second persons and reflexive pronouns in the third person) to encode reflexivity \Next[b].
+
+\ex. \ag. eg setti-st niður\\
+\Fsg.\Nom{} sit.\Pst.\Sg-\Med{} down\\
+‘I sat down.’ \jambox{\parencite[135]{lockwood1955}}
+\bg. Hann vaskaði sær\\
+\Tsg.\M{} wash.\Pst.\Sg{} \Refl.\Dat{}\\
+‘He washed’\jambox{\parencite[69]{barnes2001}}
+
+The reflexive pronouns are positioned directly right of the verb, but are neither part of its stress domain nor do they interact with it phonologically. There is no allomorphy. It inflects for person and case, and, in the first and second persons also for number. It cannot be used for passives or reciprocals. It  can be compounded with \emph{sjálv-} (agreeing in number and gender with the \Aarg-argument and in case with the \Parg-argument) which is in some cases compulsory.
+
+The medio-passive-ending \emph{-st} is added to the verbal form on its right edge, being part of the verbs stress domain and phonologically interacting with the verb (showing, e.g., elision of consonants or assimilations). It does not inflect for number, person, or case, but can be used to encode both reciprocals and passives \parencites[70, 84–85, 115–118, 135–136]{lockwood1955}[65–69 and \emph{passim}]{barnes2001}[119–120, 325–336]{thrainssonetal2004}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: ±\textsc{stress}, ±\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: ±\textsc{number}, ±\textsc{person}, ±\textsc{case}
+\item position: –\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with ±\textsc{reciprocal}, ±\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{both}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+
+\section{Romance}
+
+
+
+\subsection{Old French (Francien)}
+
+The Francien dialect of Old French, spoken in the region of present-day ÃŽle-de-France between c. 750 and 1300 CE, uses oblique personal pronouns and a special third-person reflexive marker to encode reflexivity.
+
+\ex. \ag. Je me deport.\\
+\Fsg.\Aarg{} \Fsg.\Parg{} amuse.\Prs.\Fsg{}\\
+‘I amuse myself.’\jambox{\parencite[65]{einhorn1974}}
+\bg. Molt quiement le dit a sei meïsme.\\
+very quietly \Tsg.\N{} say.\Prf.\Tsg{} to \Third.\Refl{} self\\
+‘He said it very quiet to himself’\jambox{(\emph{Chanson de Roland}, C11)} 
+
+The oblique pronouns are not positionally dependent on the verb and can occur both pre- and postverbally. They can (but need not) establish their own stress domain and interact with surrounding linguistic material, showing vowel elision between unstressed pronouns and following verbs with an initial vowel. There seems to be no allomorphy. The pronouns inflect for person, number, and case, showing number syncretism in the third person. They can be used to express reciprocity but not to form passives. An intensifier \emph{meïsme} can be added to expand the construction (\cite[63–70]{einhorn1974}; \volcite{3}[28–40]{menard1972}).
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsection{Old French (Norman, Anglo-Norman)}
+
+The Norman dialect of Old French, spoken in the region of present-day Normandy, the Channel Isles, and, from 1066 onwards, also in England, southern Wales, southern Scotland, and Ireland between c. 750 and 1300 CE, uses oblique personal pronouns and a special third-person reflexive marker to encode reflexivity.
+
+\exg. Quil voleit faire a sé aclin\\
+who.\Tsg.\M{} want.\Ipf.\Tsg{} do.\Inf{} at \Refl.\Third{} subjected\\
+‘who he wanted to subdue’\jambox{\parencite[1530]{bougy2009}}
+
+The oblique pronouns are not positionally dependent on the verb and can occur both pre- and postverbally. They can (but need not) establish their own stress domain and interact with surrounding linguistic material, showing vowel elision between unstressed pronouns and following verbs with an initial vowel. There seems to be no allomorphy. The pronouns inflect for person, number, and case, showing number syncretism in the third person. They can be used to express reciprocity but not to form passives. An intensifier \emph{meïsme} can be added to expand the construction \parencites[130–132]{short2013}[63–70]{einhorn1974}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{false}
+\item phonological interaction: +\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+
+
+\subsection{Jersey-Norman/Jèrriais}
+
+Jersey-Norman or Jèrriais, the modern dialect of Norman French spoken on the Channel Isle Jersey, uses cliticised \Parg-markers in the first and second persons, and a special reflexive marker in the third person to express reflexivity. For socio-cultural reasons we assign Jèrriais to the continent. 
+
+\exg. i se-greː\\
+\Tsg.\M{} \Tsg.\Refl-prepare.\Prs.\Sg{}\\
+‘he dresses himself’\jambox{\parencite[248]{liddicoat1994}}
+
+The \Parg- and reflexive markers are positionally dependent on the verb, being positioned directly to its right with imperatives and directly to its left with all other tense–mood combinations. They are part of the verb's stress domain and phonologically interact with the verb, showing vowel elision and liaison-phenomena with vowel-initial verbs. The variation seen in the third person reflexive marker \emph{s}/\emph{se} is phonological in nature and thus there is no allomorphy. They inflect for person, number, and case. In the third person, singular \emph{s}/\emph{se} can also be used instead of plural \emph{lyː}. As in Standard French, the reflexive formation can also be used to express reciprocals and passives. The forms can be expanded by adding a post-verbal marker \emph{mɛːm}, \emph{mwɛːm} \parencite[240–249]{liddicoat1994}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: –\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, +\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, +\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{both}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsection{Norman/Normand}
+
+Like Jersey-Norman, mainland Norman, the modern Gallo-Romance variety spoken in Normandy, employs object clitics with special reflexive forms for the third person to express reflexivity.
+
+\exg. i lyz anyi\\
+\Tpl.\Aarg{} \Tpl.\Refl{} be~bored.\Prs{}\\
+‘they are bored’\jambox{\parencite[113]{lepelley1974}}
+
+The markers are bound to the verb, occurring  directly to its right after imperatives and to its left in all other tense–mood combinations. They are part of the verb's stress domain and show vowel elision and liaison-phenomena if the verb begins with a vowel. The variation seen in, e.g., \Tpl{} \emph{lyː}/\emph{lyz} is purely phonological and the marker thus does not show allomorphy. They inflect for person and number; the third singular marker \emph{s} can be used instead of the plural marker \emph{lyː}/\emph{lyz}. From the material available to us, it is unclear whether the marker inflects for case or can be used to form passives or reciprocals. Like in Standard French, the reflexive construction can be expanded by a postverbal formant \emph{mà\textsubscript{ė}m} \parencite[113–114]{lepelley1974}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: –\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, ?\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, +\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{both}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsection{Ancien Picard}
+
+Ancien Picard,\footnote{Due to the scarcity of data, the description of Ancien Picard is in part complemented by its successor Moyen Picard spoken in roughly the same area in the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries.} the Gallo-Romance dialect spoken in present day northern France and south-eastern Belgium between c. 1000 and 1350, employs cliticised personal pronouns in the first and second persons and a reflexive pronoun in the third person to express reflexivity.
+
+\exg. J-crô, mi, qu-vous vous moquez dés gens\\
+\Fsg-believe.\Prs.\Fsg{} \Fsg{} that-\Spl{} \Spl{} mock.\Prs.\Spl{} of.\Art.\Pl{} people\\
+‘I myself believe that you are mocking these people’\jambox{\parencite[33]{flutre1970}}
+
+The pronouns are positionally bound by the verb, appearing in the direct object slot to its left in most cases, but to its right with infinitives. They cannot establish their own stress domain and phonologically interact with their surroundings, e.g. showing liaison phenomena. The markers do inflect for number and person (third person \emph{si} being used for both singular and plural), but not for case. There is no allomorphy. The pronouns can be used to form reciprocals but not passives. The reflexive can be expanded by adding \emph{mesme} ‘self’  \parencites[505–507]{flutre1970}[123–125, 143–146]{gossen1970}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: –\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, –\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+
+
+\subsection{Picard}
+
+Picard, a modern Gallo-Romance variety spoken in northern France, uses cliticised object pronouns in the first and second persons and a cliticised reflexive pronoun \emph{s} in the third person to express reflexivity.
+
+\ex. \ag. a-s-là̢f\\
+\Tsg.\F.\Aarg-\Third.\Refl-wash.\Prs.\Tsg{}\\
+‘she washes herself’\jambox{\parencite[48]{flutre1955}}
+\bg. i-lœ̢-fœ̢ dü savlõ\\
+\Third{}-\Refl.\Tpl{}-need.\Prs.\Tsg{} of.\Art{} soap\\
+‘They need soap’\jambox{\parencite[48]{flutre1955}}
+
+The pronouns are positionally bound to the verb and occur in a fixed slot left of the verb except for imperatives, where they occur in a slot to the right of the verb. There is no allomorphy. Being cliticised to the verb, the pronouns do not bear stress and phonologically interact wit their host. They inflect for person and number (an additional form \emph{lœ̨̀} can be used to distinguish number in the third person), but not for case. As in Standard French, the forms can be used to form passives and reciprocals. For emphasis, a personal pronoun + \emph{mẽ̢m} can be added to the construction \parencites[48–49]{flutre1955}[19–22]{lebesgue1984}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: –\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, +\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{both}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\subsection{Modern Standard French}
+
+Modern Standard French uses object pronouns in the first and second persons and a special reflexive pronoun in the third person to encode reflexivity.
+
+\ex. \ag. Il se lave.\\
+\Tsg.\M.\Aarg{} \Third.\Refl{} wash.\Prs.\Tsg\\
+‘he washes’
+\bg. Il ne se trouvait pas de linguiste pour traduire le document.\\
+\Tsg.\M.\Aarg{} \Neg{} \Third.\Refl{} find.\Ipf.\Tsg{} \Neg{} of linguist for translate.\Inf{} \Art{} document\\
+‘You couldn't find a linguist to translate the document.’\jambox{\parencite[321]{batchelorcheblisaadi2011}}
+\bg. Alors nous nous battons?\\
+so \Fpl{} \Fpl{} beat.\Prs.\Fsg{}\\
+‘So, we’re going to fight, aren’t we?’\jambox{\parencite[583]{guentchevariviere2007}}
+
+The pronouns are positionally bound by the verb and appear in the direct object position to the left of the verb with most inflected forms and to its right with infinitives. They cannot establish their own stress domain and interact phonologically with the verb, showing liaison phenomena and vowel elisions. There is no allomorphy. The forms inflect for person and number (third person \emph{se} being used for both singular and plural), but not for case. They can form both passives and reciprocals and can be expanded by adding the formant \emph{même} \parencites{guentchevariviere2007}[314-324, 435–451]{batchelorcheblisaadi2011}.
+
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item positional dependency: \textsc{true}
+\item phonological interaction: –\textsc{stress}, +\textsc{interaction}
+\item allomorphy: \textsc{false}
+\item inflection: +\textsc{number}, +\textsc{person}, –\textsc{case}
+\item position: +\textsc{pre}, +\textsc{post}
+\item equivalence set with +\textsc{reciprocal}, +\textsc{passive}
+\item expandable: \textsc{true}
+\item syncretism: \textsc{true}
+\end{enumerate}
+
+\printshorthands
+\printbibliography[notkeyword=shorthand]
+\end{document}
diff --git a/data-description/leipzig-addons.tex b/data-description/leipzig-addons.tex
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..4a5a399e925afefbb12ef3ec9b3c5ffc5d610642
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data-description/leipzig-addons.tex
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+\renewleipzig{aarg}{a}{the more agent-like argument of a two-place verb}
+\newleipzig{aff}{aff}{affirmative}
+
+\newleipzig{emph}{emph}{emphatic}
+
+\newleipzig{inst}{inst}{instrumental}
+\newleipzig{int}{int}{intensifier}
+\newleipzig{ipf}{ipf}{imperfect}
+
+\newleipzig{med}{med}{medium}
+\newleipzig{npst}{npst}{non-past}
+
+\renewleipzig{parg}{p}{the more patient-like argument of a two-place verb}
+\newleipzig{plup}{plup}{pluperfect}
+\newleipzig{ppl}{ppl}{participle}
+\newleipzig{prt}{prt}{preterite}
+
+\newleipzig{rec}{rec}{reciprocal}
+
+\newleipzig{vn}{vn}{verbal noun}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data-description/reflexives.bib b/data-description/reflexives.bib
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..8da91a185f6a39f9a3813955a242fe4652020693
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data-description/reflexives.bib
@@ -0,0 +1,963 @@
+
+
+@book{borsleytallermanwillis2007,
+	Address = {Cambridge},
+	Author = {Borsley, Robert D. and Tallerman, Maggie and Willis, David},
+	Date-Added = {2018-12-02 16:29:51 +0100},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:29:51 +0100},
+	Hyphenation = {british},
+	Location = {Cambridge},
+	Publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
+	Title = {The Syntax of Welsh},
+	Year = {2007}}
+
+@xdata{rec,
+	Address = {Amsterdam \& Philadelphia},
+	Booktitle = {Reciprocal Constructions},
+	Editor = {Vladimir P. Nedjalkov},
+	Publisher = {Benjamins},
+	Year = {2007}}
+
+@xdata{hbf,
+	Address = {Tübingen},
+	Booksubtitle = {Handbook of Frisian Studies},
+	Booktitle = {Handbuch des Friesischen},
+	Editor = {Horst Haider Munske and others},
+	Publisher = {Niemeyer},
+	Year = {2001}}
+
+@xdata{scots,
+	Address = {Edinburgh},
+	Booktitle = {The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language},
+	Editor = {Charles Jones},
+	Publisher = {Edinburgh University Press},
+	Year = {1997}}
+
+@xdata{bk,
+	Address = {Bremen},
+	Booksubtitle = {From Medieval British to Modern Breton},
+	Booktitle = {Brythonic Celtic – Britannisches Keltisch},
+	Editor = {Ternes, Elmar},
+	Publisher = {Hempen},
+	Year = {2011}}
+
+@xdata{pdud,
+	Address = {Berlin},
+	Booksubtitle = {Universals and Deviations},
+	Booktitle = {Phonological Domains},
+	Editor = {Janet Grijzenhout and Bariş Kabak},
+	Publisher = {de Gruyter},
+	Year = {2009}}
+
+@book{kress1982,
+	Author = {Kress, Bruno},
+	Location = {München},
+	Publisher = {Hueber},
+	Title = {Isländische Grammatik},
+	Year = {1982}}
+
+@article{jonsson2011,
+	Author = {Jónsson, Jóhannes Gísli},
+	Journaltitle = {Nordlyd. Tromsø University Working Papers on Language and Linguistics},
+	Pages = {99--118},
+	Title = {Reflexive \emph{sig} is an argument},
+	Volume = {37},
+	Year = {2011}}
+
+@book{sweet1883,
+	Author = {Sweet, Henry},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Location = {London},
+	Publisher = {The Early English Text Society},
+	Shorthand = {AO},
+	Subtitle = {Old-English Text and Latin Original},
+	Title = {King Alfred's Orosius},
+	Volume = {1},
+	Year = {1883}}
+
+@book{jonsson1924,
+	Author = {Jónsson, Finnur},
+	Edition = {Zweite neu bearbeitete Auflage},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Location = {Halle (Saale)},
+	Publisher = {Niemeyer},
+	Shorthand = {Eg},
+	Subtitle = {Nebst den grösseren Gedichten Egils},
+	Title = {Egils Saga Skallagrímssonar},
+	Year = {1924}}
+
+@book{lindowetal1998,
+	Author = {Lindow, Wolfgang},
+	Location = {Leer},
+	Publisher = {Schuster},
+	Title = {Niederdeutsche Grammatik},
+	Year = {1998}}
+
+@online{milansh,
+	Author = {Griffith, Aaron and Stifter, David},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Organization = {Institut für Sprachwissenschaft, Universität Wien},
+	Shorthand = {Ml.},
+	Title = {A dictionary of the Old-Irish glosses in the Milan Codex Ambrosianus C 301 inf},
+	Url = {http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/milan_glosses.htm},
+	Year = {2009–2013},
+	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/milan_glosses.htm}}
+
+@book{wmffre1998,
+	Author = {Wmffre, Iwan},
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+	Publisher = {Lincom Europa},
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+	Year = {1998}}
+
+@book{batchelorcheblisaadi2011,
+	Author = {Batchelor, Ronald E. and Chebli-Saadi, Malliga},
+	Location = {Cambridge},
+	Publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
+	Title = {A Reference Grammar of French},
+	Year = {2011}}
+
+@incollection{guentchevariviere2007,
+	Author = {Guentchéva, Zlatka and Rivière, Nicole},
+	Pages = {561--607},
+	Title = {Reciprocal and reflexive constructions in French},
+	Xdata = {rec}}
+
+@article{jones193941,
+	Author = {Jones, Gwenan},
+	Journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies},
+	Keywords = {text,shorthand},
+	Number = {4},
+	Pages = {144--148,334--341 \& 10,21--33},
+	Shorthand = {GWV},
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+	Volume = {9},
+	Year = {1939–1941}}
+
+@book{ernault1888,
+	Author = {Ernault, Émile},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:11:15 +0100},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Location = {Paris},
+	Publisher = {Thorin},
+	Shorthand = {B},
+	Subtitle = {Tragédie Bretonne},
+	Title = {Le mystère de Sainte Barbe},
+	Titleaddon = {Texte de 1557 publié avec traduction française, introduction et dictionnaire étymologique du Breton Moyen},
+	Year = {1888}}
+
+@online{arfstenvanselow,
+	Author = {Arfsten, Antje K. and Vanselow, Wendy},
+	Organization = {Nordfriisk Instituut},
+	Subtitle = {Fering},
+	Title = {Friisk tekstsaamling},
+	Url = {http://www.nordfriiskinstituut.de/fering.pdf},
+	Year = {2014},
+	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://www.nordfriiskinstituut.de/fering.pdf}}
+
+@misc{drabek2007,
+	Author = {Drabek, Irene},
+	Howpublished = {Lic. phil., Universität Zürich},
+	Subtitle = {Analyse einer europäischen Minoritätensprache unter dem Einfluss des Deutschen im Jahr 2007},
+	Title = {Fering},
+	Year = {2007}}
+
+@article{irslinger2014,
+	Author = {Irslinger, Britta},
+	Journaltitle = {Indogermanische Forschungen},
+	Pages = {159--206},
+	Title = {Intensifiers and reflexives in SAE, Insular Celtic and English},
+	Volume = {119},
+	Year = {2014}}
+
+@book{goi,
+	Author = {Thurneysen, Rudolf},
+	Edition = {Revised and enlarged edition},
+	Keywords = {base,airhist},
+	Location = {Dublin},
+	Publisher = {Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies},
+	Title = {A Grammar of Old Irish},
+	Year = {1946}}
+
+@mvbook{dottin1913,
+	Author = {Dottin, Georges},
+	Location = {Paris},
+	Publisher = {Champion},
+	Title = {Manuel d'Irlandais Moyen},
+	Volumes = {2},
+	Year = {1913}}
+
+@book{ph,
+	Author = {Atkinson, Robert},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Location = {Dublin},
+	Publisher = {The Academy},
+	Shorthand = {PH},
+	Title = {The Passions and Homilies from Leabhar Breac},
+	Year = {1887}}
+
+@book{orahilly1967,
+	Author = {O'Rahilly, Cecile},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:24:23 +0100},
+	Keywords = {text},
+	Location = {Dublin},
+	Publisher = {Dublin Instutue for Advanced Studies},
+	Title = {Táin Bó Cúalnge},
+	Titleaddon = {From the Book of Leinster},
+	Year = {1967}}
+
+@book{jackson1990,
+	Author = {Jackson, Kenneth H.},
+	Location = {Dublin},
+	Publisher = {Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies},
+	Title = {Aislinge meic Con Glinne},
+	Year = {1990}}
+
+@book{biobla,
+	Author = {Bhedel, Uilliam and Nuadh, Tiomna},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Location = {London},
+	Note = {Reprint},
+	Publisher = {The British and Foreign Bible Society},
+	Shorthand = {BN},
+	Subtitle = {Ann a bhfuilid an tSean Tiomnadh ar na tharruing go firinneach as nEabhra ughdarach agus an Tiomna Nuadh ar na tharruing go firinneach as a nGreigis ughdarach},
+	Title = {Biobla Naomhtha},
+	Year = {1817}}
+
+@book{omurchu2013,
+	Author = {Ó Murchú, Pól},
+	Location = {Baile Átha Cliath},
+	Publisher = {Teangaleanga},
+	Subtitle = {An Annotated Guide to \emph{Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí}},
+	Title = {A Grammar of Modern Irish},
+	Year = {2013}}
+
+@book{stenson2008,
+	Author = {Stenson, Nancy},
+	Location = {London \& New York},
+	Publisher = {Routledge},
+	Subtitle = {A Grammar and Workbook},
+	Title = {Basic Irish:},
+	Year = {2008}}
+
+@mvbook{ocurnain2007,
+	Author = {Ó Curnáin, Brian},
+	Location = {Dublin},
+	Publisher = {Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies},
+	Title = {The Irish of Iorras Aithneach, County Galway},
+	Volumes = {4},
+	Year = {2007}}
+
+@book{lamb2002,
+	Author = {Lamb, William},
+	Edition = {2},
+	Location = {München},
+	Publisher = {Lincom Europa},
+	Title = {Scottish Gaelic},
+	Year = {2002}}
+
+@book{phillips2004,
+	Author = {Phillips, John D.},
+	Location = {München},
+	Publisher = {Lincom Europa},
+	Title = {Manx},
+	Year = {2004}}
+
+@mvbook{broderick1984,
+	Author = {Broderick, George},
+	Location = {Tübingen},
+	Publisher = {Niemeyer},
+	Title = {A Handbook of Late Spoken Manx},
+	Volumes = {3},
+	Year = {1984}}
+
+@book{gmw,
+	Author = {Evans, D. Simon},
+	Location = {Dublin},
+	Publisher = {Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies},
+	Title = {A Grammar of Middle Welsh},
+	Year = {1964}}
+
+@article{lewis1923,
+	Author = {Lewis, Henry},
+	Journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Pages = {8--36},
+	Shorthand = {CD},
+	Subtitle = {Peniarth Ms. 3, ii; p. 34},
+	Title = {Catwn a’i Ddehongliad},
+	Volume = {2},
+	Year = {1923}}
+
+@book{king2003,
+	Author = {King, Gareth},
+	Edition = {2},
+	Location = {London \& New York},
+	Publisher = {Routledge},
+	Subtitle = {A Comprehensive Grammar},
+	Title = {Modern Welsh},
+	Year = {2003}}
+
+@book{thomas1996,
+	Author = {Thomas, Peter W.},
+	Location = {Caerdydd},
+	Publisher = {Gwasg Prifysgol Cymru},
+	Title = {Gramadeg y Gymraeg},
+	Year = {1996}}
+
+@book{hemon1984,
+	Author = {Hemon, Roparz},
+	Location = {Dublin},
+	Publisher = {Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies},
+	Title = {A Historical Morphology and Syntax of Breton},
+	Year = {1984}}
+
+@book{leroux1957,
+	Author = {le Roux, Pierre},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:24:45 +0100},
+	Edition = {2},
+	Location = {Rennes \& Paris},
+	Publisher = {Pilhon \& Champion},
+	Subtitle = {Morphologie, syntaxe},
+	Title = {Le verbe breton},
+	Year = {1957}}
+
+@incollection{williams2011,
+	Author = {Williams, Nicholas J. A.},
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+	Title = {Middle and Late Cornish},
+	Xdata = {bk}}
+
+@online{toorians2014,
+	Author = {Toorians, Lauran},
+	Title = {Towards a Grammar of Middle Cornish},
+	Url = {http://laurantoorians.com/?page_id=128},
+	Version = {1.1},
+	Year = {2014},
+	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://laurantoorians.com/?page_id=128}}
+
+@book{meriasek,
+	Author = {Stokes, Whitley},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Location = {London},
+	Publisher = {Trübner},
+	Shorthand = {BM},
+	Subtitle = {The Life of Saint Meriasek, Bishop and Confessor. A Cornish Drama},
+	Title = {Beunans Meriasek},
+	Year = {1872}}
+
+@book{neuss1983,
+	Author = {Neuss, Paula},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Location = {New York \& London},
+	Publisher = {Garland},
+	Shorthand = {CW},
+	Subtitle = {A critical edition and translation},
+	Title = {The Creacion of the World},
+	Year = {1983}}
+
+@book{wmffre1999,
+	Author = {Wmffre, Iwan},
+	Location = {München \& Newcastle},
+	Publisher = {Lincom Europa},
+	Title = {Late Cornish},
+	Year = {1999}}
+
+@incollection{nedjalkov2007,
+	Author = {Nedjalkov, Vladimir P.},
+	Pages = {147--207},
+	Title = {Encoding of the reciprocal meaning},
+	Xdata = {rec}}
+
+@book{vangelderen2000,
+	Author = {van Gelderen, Elly},
+	Location = {Amsterdam \& Philadelphia},
+	Publisher = {Benjamins},
+	Subtitle = {Person, \emph{Self}, and Interpretability},
+	Title = {A History of English Reflexive Pronouns},
+	Year = {2000}}
+
+@book{tolkiengordon1925,
+	Author = {Tolkien, John R. R. and Gordon, Eric V.},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Location = {Oxford},
+	Publisher = {Clarendon},
+	Shorthand = {SGGK},
+	Title = {Sir Gawain and the Green Knight},
+	Year = {1925}}
+
+@incollection{mondorf2012,
+	Address = {Berlin \& New York},
+	Author = {Mondorf, Britta},
+	Booksubtitle = {An International Handbook},
+	Booktitle = {English Historical Linguistics},
+	Editor = {Bergs, Alexander},
+	Pages = {842--869},
+	Publisher = {de Gruyter},
+	Title = {Late Modern English: Morphology},
+	Volume = {1},
+	Year = {2012}}
+
+@incollection{king1997,
+	Author = {King, Anne},
+	Pages = {156--181},
+	Title = {The inflectional morphology of Older Scots},
+	Xdata = {scots}}
+
+@online{eagle2016,
+	Author = {Eagle, Andy},
+	Title = {An Introduction to Modern Scots},
+	Url = {http://www.scots-online.org/articles/contents/ModernScots.pdf},
+	Year = {2016},
+	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://www.scots-online.org/articles/contents/ModernScots.pdf}}
+
+@incollection{beal1997,
+	Author = {Beal, Joan},
+	Pages = {335--377},
+	Title = {Syntax and morphology},
+	Xdata = {scots}}
+
+@book{hickey2007,
+	Author = {Hickey, Raymond},
+	Location = {Cambridge},
+	Publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
+	Subtitle = {History and Present-Day Forms},
+	Title = {Irish English},
+	Year = {2007}}
+
+@book{amadormoreno2010,
+	Author = {Amador-Moreno, Carolina P.},
+	Location = {London \& Oakville},
+	Publisher = {Equinox},
+	Title = {An Introduction to Irish English},
+	Year = {2010}}
+
+@book{gallee1993,
+	Author = {Gallée, Johan Hendrik},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:21:50 +0100},
+	Edition = {3},
+	Location = {Berlin \& New York},
+	Publisher = {de Gruyter},
+	Title = {Altsächsische Grammatik},
+	Titleaddon = {Mit Berichtigungen und Literaturnachträgen},
+	Year = {1993}}
+
+@book{lasch1914,
+	Author = {Lasch, Agathe},
+	Location = {Halle a. S.},
+	Publisher = {Niemeyer},
+	Title = {Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik},
+	Year = {1914}}
+
+@book{markey1981,
+	Author = {Markey, Thomas L.},
+	Location = {The Hague, Paris, \& New York},
+	Publisher = {Mouton},
+	Title = {Frisian},
+	Year = {1981}}
+
+@book{bremmer2009,
+	Author = {Bremmer, Rolf H.},
+	Location = {Amsterdam \& Philadelphia},
+	Publisher = {Benjamins},
+	Title = {An Introduction to Old Frisian},
+	Year = {2009}}
+
+@incollection{walkerwilts2001,
+	Author = {Walker, Alastair G. H. and Wilts, Ommo},
+	Pages = {284--304},
+	Title = {Die nordfriesischen Mundarten},
+	Xdata = {hbf}}
+
+@incollection{arhammar2001,
+	Author = {Ã…rhammar, Nils},
+	Pages = {313--353},
+	Title = {Das Nordfriesische im Sprachkontakt},
+	Xdata = {hbf}}
+
+@book{schmidtpetersencraigie1928,
+	Author = {Schmidt-Petersen, Jürgen and Craigie, James},
+	Location = {Edinburgh},
+	Publisher = {Hutchen},
+	Title = {The North Frisian Dialect of Föhr and Amrum},
+	Year = {1928}}
+
+@incollection{hoekstra2001,
+	Author = {Hoekstra, Jarich F.},
+	Pages = {83--98},
+	Title = {Standard West Frisian},
+	Xdata = {hbf}}
+
+@book{tiersma1999,
+	Author = {Tiersma, Peter M.},
+	Edition = {2},
+	Location = {Ljouwert},
+	Publisher = {Fryske Akademy},
+	Title = {Frisian Reference Grammar},
+	Year = {1999}}
+
+@book{popkema2013,
+	Author = {Popkema, Jan},
+	Location = {Leeuwarden},
+	Publisher = {Fryske Akademy},
+	Subtitle = {The Basics},
+	Title = {Frisian Grammar},
+	Year = {2013}}
+
+@book{tiersma1985,
+	Author = {Tiersma, Peter M.},
+	Location = {Dordrecht \& Cinnaminson},
+	Publisher = {Foris},
+	Title = {Frisian Reference Grammar},
+	Year = {1985}}
+
+@incollection{quak1992,
+	Author = {Quak, Arend},
+	Booktitle = {Zur Phonologie und Morphologie des Altniederländischen},
+	Editor = {Bremmer, Rolf H. and Quak, Arend},
+	Location = {Odense},
+	Pages = {81--123},
+	Publisher = {Odense University Press},
+	Title = {Versuch einer Formenlehre des Altniederländischen auf der Basis der Wachtendonckschen Psalmen},
+	Year = {1992}}
+
+@book{franck1910,
+	Author = {Franck, Johannes},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:21:16 +0100},
+	Location = {Leipzig},
+	Publisher = {Tauchnitz},
+	Title = {Mittelniederländische Grammatik},
+	Titleaddon = {Mit Lesestücken und Glossar},
+	Year = {1910}}
+
+@book{vankerckevoorde1993,
+	Author = {van Kerckevoorde, Colette M.},
+	Location = {Berlin \& New York},
+	Publisher = {de Gruyter},
+	Title = {An Introduction to Middle Dutch},
+	Year = {1993}}
+
+@book{donaldson1997,
+	Author = {Donaldson, Bruce},
+	Edition = {2},
+	Location = {London \& New York},
+	Publisher = {Routledge},
+	Subtitle = {A comprehensive Grammar},
+	Title = {Dutch},
+	Year = {1997}}
+
+@book{shetter1993,
+	Author = {Shetter, William Z.},
+	Edition = {7},
+	Location = {London \& New York},
+	Publisher = {Routledge},
+	Subtitle = {An Essential Grammar},
+	Title = {Dutch},
+	Year = {1993}}
+
+@book{niemeyer2004ahd1,
+	Author = {Braune, Wilhelm and Reiffenstein, Ingo},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:16:38 +0100},
+	Edition = {15},
+	Keywords = {Althochdeutsch,Grammatik},
+	Langid = {ngerman},
+	Location = {Tübingen},
+	Maintitle = {Althochdeutsche Grammatik},
+	Publisher = {Niemeyer},
+	Title = {Laut- und Formenlehre},
+	Volume = {1},
+	Year = {2004}}
+
+@book{dal2014syntax,
+	Author = {Dal, Ingerid},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:17:34 +0100},
+	Edition = {4},
+	Keywords = {Deutsch,Syntax},
+	Langid = {ngerman},
+	Location = {Berlin},
+	Publisher = {De Gruyter},
+	Title = {Kurze deutsche Syntax auf historischer Grundlage},
+	Year = {2014}}
+
+@book{niemeyer2009mhd,
+	Author = {Klein, Thomas},
+	Keywords = {Mittelhochdeutsch,Grammatik},
+	Location = {Tübingen},
+	Publisher = {Niemeyer},
+	Title = {Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik},
+	Year = {2009}}
+
+@book{duden2009grammatik,
+	Author = {Dudenredaktion, Bibliographisches Institut Mannheim.},
+	Edition = {8., überarb. Aufl.},
+	Keywords = {Neuhochdeutsch,Grammatik},
+	Location = {Mannheim},
+	Publisher = {Dudenverlag},
+	Title = {Duden – die Grammatik : unentbehrlich für richtiges Deutsch},
+	Year = {2009}}
+
+@book{haugen2015,
+	Author = {Haugen, Odd Einar},
+	Edition = {2},
+	Location = {Bergen},
+	Note = {Ãœbersetzung aus dem Norwegischen von Astrid van Nahl},
+	Publisher = {Universität Bergen},
+	Subtitle = {Altisländisch und Altnorwegisch},
+	Title = {Norröne Grammatik im Überblick},
+	Titleaddon = {Netzversion},
+	Url = {http://folk.uib.no/hnooh/Grammatik},
+	Year = {2015},
+	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://folk.uib.no/hnooh/Grammatik}}
+
+@book{faarlund2004,
+	Author = {Faarlund, Jan T.},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:18:29 +0100},
+	Location = {Oxford},
+	Publisher = {Oxford University Press},
+	Title = {The Syntax of Old Norse},
+	Year = {2004}}
+
+@book{nedoma2006,
+	Author = {Nedoma, Robert},
+	Edition = {2., erw. und aktualisierte Auflage},
+	Location = {Heidelberg},
+	Publisher = {Winter},
+	Title = {Kleine Grammatik des Altisländischen},
+	Year = {2006}}
+
+@book{jonsson1908,
+	Author = {Jónsson, Finnur},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Location = {Halle a. S.},
+	Publisher = {Niemeyer},
+	Shorthand = {Nj},
+	Title = {Brennu-Njálssaga},
+	Year = {1908}}
+
+@book{lundskaernielsenholmes2010,
+	Author = {Lundskær-Nielsen, Tom and Holmes, Philip},
+	Edition = {2},
+	Location = {London},
+	Publisher = {Routledge},
+	Subtitle = {A Comprehensive Grammar},
+	Title = {Danish},
+	Year = {2010}}
+
+@book{herslund2002,
+	Author = {Herslund, Michael},
+	Location = {München},
+	Publisher = {Lincom Europa},
+	Title = {Danish},
+	Year = {2002}}
+
+@article{hvilshoj1999,
+	Author = {Hvilshøj, Ulrik},
+	Journaltitle = {Ny Forskning i Grammatik},
+	Pages = {81--106},
+	Subtitle = {\emph{Sig} og \emph{sig selv} i et typologisk perspektiv},
+	Title = {Refelksivitet i dansk},
+	Volume = {6},
+	Year = {1999}}
+
+@book{lockwood1955,
+	Author = {Lockwood, William B.},
+	Location = {København},
+	Publisher = {Munksgaard},
+	Title = {An Introduction to Modern Faroese},
+	Year = {1955}}
+
+@book{barnes2001,
+	Author = {Barnes, Michael},
+	Location = {Oslo},
+	Publisher = {Novus},
+	Title = {Faroese Language Studies},
+	Year = {2001}}
+
+@book{thrainssonetal2004,
+	Author = {Þráinsson, Höskuldur and Petersen, Hjalmar P. and í Lon Jacobsen, Jógvan},
+	Location = {Tórshavn},
+	Publisher = {Føroya Fróðskaparfelag},
+	Subtitle = {An Overview and Reference Grammar},
+	Title = {Faroese},
+	Year = {2004}}
+
+@book{einhorn1974,
+	Author = {Einhorn, Elsabe},
+	Location = {Cambridge},
+	Publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
+	Subtitle = {A Concise Handbook},
+	Title = {Old French},
+	Year = {1974}}
+
+@mvbook{menard1972,
+	Author = {Ménard, Philippe},
+	Edition = {2},
+	Location = {Bordeaux},
+	Publisher = {sobodi},
+	Title = {Manuel d'ancien français},
+	Volumes = {3},
+	Year = {1972}}
+
+@book{short2013,
+	Author = {Short, Ian},
+	Location = {2013},
+	Publisher = {Anglo-Norman Text Society},
+	Title = {Manual of Anglo-Norman},
+	Year = {2013}}
+
+@book{auffray2012,
+	Author = {Auffray, Régis},
+	Location = {Rennes},
+	Publisher = {Rue des Scribes},
+	Subtitle = {Grammaire de Gallo},
+	Title = {Chapè chapiao},
+	Year = {2012}}
+
+@book{deriano2005,
+	Author = {Deriano, Patrik},
+	Location = {Ploudalmézeau},
+	Publisher = {Label Ln},
+	Title = {Grammaire du Gallo},
+	Year = {2005}}
+
+@book{liddicoat1994,
+	Author = {Liddicoat, Anthony},
+	Location = {Berlin \& New York},
+	Publisher = {de Gruyter},
+	Subtitle = {The Dialects of Jersey and Stark},
+	Title = {A Grammar of the Norman French Dialects of the Channel Islands},
+	Year = {1994}}
+
+@thesis{lepelley1974,
+	Author = {Lepelley, René},
+	Institution = {Paris X – Nanterre},
+	Location = {Caen},
+	Subtitle = {Phonétique morphologie syntaxe vocabulaire de la vie rurale},
+	Title = {Le parler Normand du Val de Saire (Manche)},
+	Type = {phdthesis},
+	Year = {1974}}
+
+@book{flutre1970,
+	Author = {Flutre, Louis-Fernand},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:20:44 +0100},
+	Location = {Amiens},
+	Publisher = {Musée de Picardie},
+	Title = {Le Moyen-Picard},
+	Titleaddon = {D'après les textes littéraires du temps (1560–1660). Textes – Lexique – Grammaire},
+	Year = {1970}}
+
+@book{gossen1970,
+	Author = {Gossen, Charles T.},
+	Location = {Paris},
+	Publisher = {Klincksieck},
+	Title = {Grammaire de l'Ancien Picard},
+	Year = {1970}}
+
+@book{flutre1955,
+	Author = {Flutre, Louis-Fernand},
+	Location = {Genève \& Lille},
+	Publisher = {Libraire Droz \& Libraire Giard},
+	Subtitle = {Phonétique, Morphologie, Syntaxe, Vocabulaire},
+	Title = {Le Parler Picard de Mesnil-Martinsart (Somme)},
+	Year = {1955}}
+
+@incollection{stifter2010,
+	Address = {London \& New York},
+	Author = {David Stifter},
+	Booktitle = {The Celtic Languages},
+	Edition = {2},
+	Editor = {Martin J. Ball and Nicole Müller},
+	Pages = {55-116},
+	Publisher = {Routledge},
+	Title = {Early Irish},
+	Year = {2010}}
+
+@book{faarlundetal1997,
+	Address = {Oslo},
+	Author = {Jan T. Faarlund and Svein Lie and Kjell I. Vannebo},
+	Publisher = {Universitetsforlaget},
+	Title = {Norsk referansegrammatikk},
+	Year = {1997}}
+
+@article{timm1987,
+	Author = {Lenora A. Timm},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:25:32 +0100},
+	Journal = {Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie},
+	Pages = {242–292},
+	Title = {The verb morphology of Carhaisien Breton},
+	Volume = {42},
+	Year = {1987}}
+
+@book{huddlestonepullum2005,
+	Address = {Cambridge},
+	Author = {Rodney Huddlestone and Geoffrey K. Pullum},
+	Publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
+	Title = {A Student's Introduction to English Grammar},
+	Year = {2005}}
+
+@incollection{schrijver2011a,
+	Author = {Schrijver, Peter},
+	Keywords = {grammar,old breton,middle breton},
+	Pages = {359–429},
+	Title = {Middle and Early Modern Breton},
+	Xdata = {bk}}
+
+@incollection{schumacher2011,
+	Author = {Schumacher, Stefan},
+	Pages = {85--235},
+	Title = {Mittel- und Frühneukymrisch},
+	Xdata = {bk}}
+
+@mvbook{barboursaints,
+	Author = {John Barbour},
+	Editor = {William M. Metcalfe},
+	Location = {Edinburgh \& London},
+	Publisher = {Blackwood \& Sons},
+	Title = {Legends of the Saints in the Scottish Dialect of the Fourteenth Century},
+	Titleaddon = {Edited from the unique manuscript in the university library, Cambridge},
+	Volumes = {3},
+	Year = {1896}}
+
+@book{calder1980,
+	Address = {Glasgow},
+	Author = {George Calder},
+	Publisher = {Gairm},
+	Title = {A Gaelic Grammar},
+	Titleaddon = {Containing the parts of speech and the general principles of phonology and etymology with a chapter on proper and place names},
+	Year = {1980}}
+
+@book{rhg13,
+	Address = {Aberystwyth},
+	Author = {Isaac, Graham R. and Rodway, Simon and Nurmio, Silva and Kapphahn, Kit and Sims-Williams, Patrick},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Publisher = {Prifysgol Aberystwyth},
+	Shorthand = {RhGL13},
+	Title = {Rhyddiaith Gymraeg o Lawysgrifau’r 13eg Ganrif},
+	Url = {http://hdl.handle.net/2160/5813},
+	Year = {2010},
+	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://hdl.handle.net/2160/5813}}
+
+@book{petursson1978,
+	Address = {Hamburg},
+	Author = {Magnús Pétursson},
+	Publisher = {Buske},
+	Title = {Isländisch},
+	Titleaddon = {Eine Übersicht über die moderne isländische Sprache mit einem kurzen Abriß der Geschicgte und Literatur Islands},
+	Year = {1978}}
+
+@book{ebel1968,
+	Address = {Göttingen},
+	Author = {Wilhelm Ebel},
+	Publisher = {Vandenhoeck \& Ruprecht},
+	Title = {Das Stadtrecht von Goslar},
+	Year = {1968}}
+
+@book{kristoffersen2000,
+	Address = {Oxford},
+	Author = {Gjert Kristoffersen},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:22:57 +0100},
+	Publisher = {Oxford University Press},
+	Title = {The Phonology of Norwegian},
+	Year = {2000}}
+
+@book{basboll2005,
+	Address = {Oxford},
+	Author = {Hans Basbøll},
+	Publisher = {Oxford University Press},
+	Title = {The Phonology of Danish},
+	Year = {2005}}
+
+@book{steller1928,
+	Address = {Halle (Saale)},
+	Author = {Walther Steller},
+	Publisher = {Niemeyer},
+	Title = {Abriss der altfriesischen Grammatik},
+	Titleaddon = {Mit Berücksichtigung der Westgermanischen Dialecte des Altenglischen, Altsächsischen und Althochdeutschen; mit Lesestücken und Wortverzeichnis},
+	Year = {1928}}
+
+@book{bumaebel1965,
+	Address = {Göttingen},
+	Author = {Wybren Jan Buma and Wilhelm Ebel},
+	Publisher = {Vandenhoeck \& Ruprecht},
+	Title = {Das Brokmer Recht},
+	Year = {1965}}
+
+@book{kerckvoorde1994,
+	Address = {New York etc.},
+	Author = {Colette van Kerckvoorde},
+	Publisher = {Lang},
+	Title = {A Descriptive Grammar of Jan Yperman’s \emph{Cyrurgie}},
+	Year = {1994}}
+
+@online{bruckmannlowgerman,
+	Author = {Elke Brückmann},
+	Title = {Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfreisland},
+	Url = {http://www.platt-wb.de/},
+	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://www.platt-wb.de/}}
+
+@book{matrasreershemius2003,
+	Address = {München},
+	Author = {Yaron Matras and Gertrud Reershemius},
+	Publisher = {Lincom},
+	Subtitle = {East Frisian dialect},
+	Title = {Low German},
+	Year = {2003}}
+
+@book{donaldson2017,
+	Author = {Donaldson, Bruce},
+	Edition = {3},
+	Location = {London \& New York},
+	Publisher = {Routledge},
+	Subtitle = {A comprehensive Grammar},
+	Title = {Dutch},
+	Year = {2017}}
+
+@book{lebesgue1984,
+	Address = {Amiens},
+	Author = {Philéas Lebesgue},
+	Publisher = {Université de Picardie},
+	Title = {Grammaire Picard{\textasciitilde}Brayonne},
+	Year = {1984}}
+
+@incollection{bickeletal2009,
+	Author = {Bickel, Balthasar and Kristine A. Hildebrandt and René Schiering},
+	Pages = {47–75},
+	Subtitle = {A probabilistic typology},
+	Title = {The distribution of phonological word domains:},
+	Xdata = {pdud}}
+
+@book{bougy2009,
+	Address = {Caen \& Ville d'Avranches},
+	Author = {de Saint-Pair, Guillaume},
+	Editor = {Catherine Bougy},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Publisher = {Presses Universitaires de Caen \& Scriptorial},
+	Shorthand = {RMSM},
+	Subtitle = {XII\textsuperscript{e} siècle},
+	Title = {Le Roman du Mont Saint-Michel},
+	Year = {2009}}
+
+@book{godden1979,
+	Address = {London},
+	Author = {{Ælfric of Eynsham}},
+	Editor = {Malcolm Godden},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Publisher = {Oxford University Press},
+	Shorthand = {ÆCH2},
+	Subtitle = {The Second Series, Text},
+	Title = {Ælfric's Catholic Homilies:},
+	Year = {1979}}
+
+@incollection{wb,
+	Address = {Cambridge},
+	Author = {Whitley Stokes and John Strachan},
+	Booksubtitle = {A Collection of Old-Irish Glosses, Scholia Prose and Verse},
+	Booktitle = {Thesaurus Palaeohibernicus},
+	Date-Modified = {2018-12-02 16:38:10 +0100},
+	Keywords = {shorthand},
+	Pages = {499–712},
+	Publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
+	Shorthand = {Wb.},
+	Title = {Codex Paulinus Wiziburgensis},
+	Volume = {1},
+	Year = {1901–1903}}
diff --git a/data/features/epoch1_aft.csv b/data/features/epoch1_aft.csv
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f7d0341024520dfcab1833cd82d157c64a4fe61d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/features/epoch1_aft.csv
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+"synt_dep","stress","interaction","allomorphy","ling_number","person","ling_case","pre","post","rec","pass","expandable","syncretism","fk_lang_id","ancestry_id","name"
+"both","both","both","true","true","true","false","both","both","false","false","true","false",2,1,"Middle Irish"
+"false","true","false","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","false",14,2,"Middle English"
+"false","true","false","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","false",17,3,"Older Scots"
+"false","true","false","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","true",21,4,"Middle Low German"
+"false","true","false","false","true","true","true",NA,"true","false","false","true","both",28,5,"Middle Dutch"
+"both","both","both","false","true","true","both","false","true","both","both","true","both",30,6,"Old Norse"
+"false","true","true","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","true",34,7,"Old French (Francien)"
+"false","true","true","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","true",35,8,"Old French (Anglo-Norman)"
+"false","both","both","true","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","both",43,31,"Middle High German"
diff --git a/data/features/epoch1_bef.csv b/data/features/epoch1_bef.csv
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9ed6e644b3a250da96d973211ed597854d874430
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/features/epoch1_bef.csv
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+"synt_dep","stress","interaction","allomorphy","ling_number","person","ling_case","pre","post","rec","pass","expandable","syncretism","fk_lang_id","ancestry_id","name"
+"true","false","true","true","true","true","false","true","true","false","false","true","false",1,1,"Old Irish"
+"false","true","false","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","false",13,2,"Old English"
+"false","true","false","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","false",13,3,"Old English"
+"false","true","false","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","false",20,4,"Old Saxon"
+"false","true","true","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false",NA,"false",27,5,"Old Dutch"
+"both","both","both","false","true","true","both","false","true","both","both","true","both",30,6,"Old Norse"
+"false","true","true","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","true",34,7,"Old French (Francien)"
+"false","true","true","false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","true",35,8,"Old French (Anglo-Norman)"
+"false","true",NA,"false","true","true","true","true","true","true","false","true","both",42,31,"Old High German"
diff --git a/data/features/epoch2_aft.csv b/data/features/epoch2_aft.csv
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..8a2599c10515491def7d87fa90a8ce727c30ab4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/features/epoch2_aft.csv
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+synt_dep,stress,interaction,allomorphy,ling_number,person,ling_case,pre,post,rec,pass,expandable,syncretism,fk_lang_id,ancestry_id,name
+false,true,false,true,true,true,false,false,true,false,false,false,false,3,9,Modern Irish
+false,true,false,true,true,true,false,false,true,false,false,false,false,4,10,Scottish Gaelic
+false,true,false,true,true,true,false,false,true,false,false,false,false,5,11,Manx
+false,true,true,true,true,true,false,false,true,false,false,false,false,7,12,Northern Welsh
+false,true,true,true,true,true,false,false,true,false,false,false,false,8,13,Southern Welsh
+true,false,true,false,false,false,false,true,false,true,false,true,true,10,14,Central Breton
+false,true,false,true,true,true,false,NA,true,false,false,false,false,12,15,Late Cornish
+false,true,false,true,true,false,false,false,true,false,false,false,false,16,16,Modern British English
+false,true,false,true,true,true,false,false,true,false,false,false,false,19,17,Irish English
+false,true,false,false,true,true,false,false,true,false,false,false,false,18,18,Scots
+false,true,false,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,true,22,19,Modern Low German East Frisia
+false,true,false,false,false,false,false,true,true,true,false,true,true,23,20,Modern Low German Dithmarschen
+false,true,true,false,true,true,true,NA,true,false,false,true,both,25,21,Fering
+false,true,true,false,true,true,true,true,true,false,false,true,false,26,22,Modern West Frisian
+false,both,both,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,false,true,true,29,23,Modern Dutch
+true,false,false,false,true,true,false,false,true,false,false,true,true,31,24,Danish
+both,both,both,false,both,both,both,both,true,both,both,both,true,32,25,Modern Icelandic
+true,both,both,false,both,both,both,false,both,both,both,both,true,33,26,Faroese
+true,false,true,false,true,true,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,41,27,Modern Standard French
+true,false,true,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,true,true,both,37,28,Jèrriais
+true,false,true,false,true,true,NA,true,true,true,true,true,both,38,29,Normand
+true,false,true,false,true,true,false,true,true,true,true,true,both,39,30,Picard
+false,true,false,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,false,44,32,Modern High German
+true,true,false,false,true,true,false,false,true,false,false,true,true,45,33,Norwegian
diff --git a/data/features/epoch2_bef.csv b/data/features/epoch2_bef.csv
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..5100e01f2ed1a65a8db8e703dab2c459950990d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/features/epoch2_bef.csv
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+synt_dep,stress,interaction,allomorphy,ling_number,person,ling_case,pre,post,rec,pass,expandable,syncretism,fk_lang_id,ancestry_id,name
+both,both,both,true,true,true,false,both,both,false,false,true,false,2,9,Middle Irish
+both,both,both,true,true,true,false,both,both,false,false,true,false,2,10,Middle Irish
+both,both,both,true,true,true,false,both,both,false,false,true,false,2,11,Middle Irish
+both,both,both,both,both,both,both,both,both,both,false,both,true,6,12,Middle Welsh
+both,both,both,both,both,both,both,both,both,both,false,both,true,6,13,Middle Welsh
+true,false,true,false,true,true,false,true,false,false,false,true,false,9,14,Middle Breton
+true,false,true,false,false,false,false,true,false,true,false,true,true,11,15,Middle Cornish
+false,true,false,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,false,14,16,Middle English
+false,true,false,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,false,14,17,Middle English
+false,true,false,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,false,17,18,Older Scots
+false,true,false,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,true,21,19,Middle Low German
+false,true,false,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,true,21,20,Middle Low German
+false,both,both,true,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,false,24,21,Old Frisian
+false,both,both,true,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,false,24,22,Old Frisian
+false,true,false,false,true,true,true,NA,true,false,false,true,both,28,23,Middle Dutch
+both,both,both,false,true,true,both,false,true,both,both,true,both,30,24,Old Norse
+both,both,both,false,true,true,both,false,true,both,both,true,both,30,25,Old Norse
+both,both,both,false,true,true,both,false,true,both,both,true,both,30,26,Old Norse
+false,true,true,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,true,34,27,Old French (Francien)
+false,true,true,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,true,35,28,Old French (Anglo-Norman)
+false,true,true,false,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,true,35,29,Old French (Anglo-Norman)
+true,false,true,false,true,true,false,true,true,true,false,true,true,40,30,Moyen Picard
+false,both,both,true,true,true,true,true,true,true,false,true,both,43,32,Middle High German
+both,both,both,false,true,true,both,false,true,both,both,true,both,30,33,Old Norse
diff --git a/data/geo/locations_epoch1_bef.GeoJSON b/data/geo/locations_epoch1_bef.GeoJSON
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..7833128d23b6e199154b5b5768fba9019e2ca840
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/geo/locations_epoch1_bef.GeoJSON
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+{
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new file mode 100644
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new file mode 100644
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+]
+}
diff --git a/reflexives-britain-ireland-SOM1.pdf b/reflexives-britain-ireland-SOM1.pdf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f8e14e7c3bb3be4dd4fe6c6b1ebf374416112b77
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diff --git a/reflexives-britain-ireland-SOM2.pdf b/reflexives-britain-ireland-SOM2.pdf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..2cd8a1f59e6fb3d53dcb87186ce6a4a0acc165ca
Binary files /dev/null and b/reflexives-britain-ireland-SOM2.pdf differ
diff --git a/script/reflexives-script.Rmd b/script/reflexives-script.Rmd
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..813876d889959c17de909eec69c07d6430192fc4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/script/reflexives-script.Rmd
@@ -0,0 +1,1316 @@
+---
+title: "Evidence for Britain and Ireland as linguistic Area"
+subtitle: "Supporting online material 2: R-script"
+author: "Peter Ranacher, Stefan Dedio, and Paul Widmer"
+date: '`r Sys.Date()`'
+output: 
+  pdf_document:
+    includes:
+      in_header: packages.sty
+    fig_crop: true
+    fig_caption: true
+    latex_engine: lualatex
+    toc: true
+    toc_depth: 4
+    keep_tex: yes
+    number_section: true
+    pandoc_args: [
+      "--variable=lof",
+      "--bibliography=ref/reflexivity_nw_europe.bib"]
+---
+
+```{r setup, include=FALSE}
+knitr::opts_chunk$set(echo = TRUE)
+```
+
+# Introduction 
+
+In this document we explore the change in linguistic similarities in a set of languages in North-Western Europe based on constructions that express reflexivity. We compute the pairwise similarity between all languages in the sample for three different points in time (before 800 A.D., after 1200 A.D. and after 1900 A.D.). Then we evaluate the change in similarity within two epochs:
+
+- epoch 1: between 800 A.D. and 1200 A.D.
+- epoch 2: between 1200 A.D. and 1900 A.D. 
+
+We assign all languages to one of two areal regions: languages in Britain and Ireland (*isles*) and languages in continental Europe, Scandinavia, Iceland, and the Faroes (*continent*), and explore the developments in similarity for individual languages and for the two groups as a whole.
+
+In addition, we perform a Bayesian analysis in which we show that the similarity in britain and Ireland significantly increases during epoch 2, whereas the similarity between isles and continent decreases.  
+
+
+# Preprocessing and function definition 
+
+## Packages
+
+```{r libraries}
+
+# Bayesian analysis 
+library(rstan)
+
+# Visualization
+library(ggplot2)
+library(RSplitsTree)
+library(RColorBrewer)
+library(grid)
+library(gridExtra)
+
+# Spatial data handling
+library(rgeos)
+library(sp)
+library(rgdal)
+
+# Helper packages
+library(reshape2)
+library(knitr)
+library(dplyr)
+```
+
+
+## Data import 
+
+We import all languages and their features for both epochs from `csv`-files. Languages are not constant, but change with time, which might also lead to a change in how we term a language. We need to account for these different terms when evaluating the change of similarity. For example, we compute the similarity between the languages A and B before 800 A.D. Both A and B change and after 1200 A.D. language $A$ has evolved into language  $A'$ and $B$ into $B'$. We say that $A'$ is the successor of $A$. Similarly, $B$ is the predecessor of $B'$. Moreover, we say that $A$ and $A'$ form a predecessor/successor pair.  $A$ might divide into more than one successor ($A'_1$, $A'_2$, ...), which results in several predecessor/successor pairs with the same predecessor. 
+Our sample is larger for more recent languages. Moreover, some languages die out and others appear over time. Thus, the sets of languages in both epochs differ in size. 
+
+
+### Epoch 1: from 800 A.D to 1200 A.D.
+
+```{r get data epoch1}
+
+# Languages before epoch 1
+
+epoch1_bef <- read.csv("../data/features/epoch1_bef.csv",
+                       stringsAsFactors = F)
+epoch1_aft <- read.csv("../data/features/epoch1_aft.csv",
+                       stringsAsFactors = F)
+row.names(epoch1_bef) <- epoch1_bef$ancestry_id
+row.names(epoch1_aft) <- epoch1_aft$ancestry_id
+
+```
+
+### Epoch 2: from 1200 A.D to 1900 A.D.
+
+```{r get data epoch2}
+
+epoch2_bef <- read.csv("../data/features/epoch2_bef.csv",
+                       stringsAsFactors = F)
+epoch2_aft <- read.csv("../data/features/epoch2_aft.csv",
+                       stringsAsFactors = F)
+row.names(epoch2_bef) <- epoch2_bef$ancestry_id
+row.names(epoch2_aft) <- epoch2_aft$ancestry_id
+```
+
+### Spatial locations of the languages
+
+We import the spatial locations of all langaugaes from `GeoJSON` files.
+```{r get locations, message=F, results="hide"}
+
+# Before epoch 1 
+locations_epoch1_bef_sp <- readOGR("../data/geo/locations_epoch1_bef.GeoJSON", 
+                                   "locations_epoch1_bef")
+
+# Before epoch 2 
+locations_epoch2_bef_sp <- readOGR("../data/geo/locations_epoch2_bef.GeoJSON", 
+                                   "locations_epoch2_bef")
+
+# After epoch 2 
+
+locations_epoch2_aft_sp <- readOGR("../data/geo/locations_epoch2_aft.GeoJSON", 
+                                   "locations_epoch2_aft")
+
+```
+
+
+## Functions 
+### Feature similarity 
+
+The function `feature_sim` computes the similarity between two linguistic features `f1` and `f2`. The function is based on the simple matching coefficient [@cheetham_etal_1969], but tailored to needs of our data. The features in our data have four possible states: 
+
+ - `true`: the language has the feature
+ - `false`: the language doesn't have the feature, 
+ - `both`: there is one construction in the language that has the feature and another one that does not
+ - `NA`: we don't know if the language has the feature or not
+
+Hence, there are sixteen different combinations of features. For each of these combinations we define a similarity: 
+
+- if either of the features is `NA` (`NA/true`, `NA/false`, `NA/both`, `NA/NA`, `true/NA`, `false/NA`, `both/NA`), the similarity is undefined.
+- if the features are different (`true/false`, `false/true`) the similarity is 0. 
+- if the features are the same (`true/true`, `false/false`, `both/both`), the similarity between the features is 1. 
+- if one of the features is `both` and the other is not (`both/true`, `both/false`, `true/both`, `false/both`), the similarity is 0.5.
+
+
+```{r function feature_sim}
+
+feature_sim <- function (f1, f2) {
+  #' This function computes the similarity between two features
+  #'  
+  #' @param f1: char, the first feature (true, false, both or NA)
+  #' @param f2: char, the second feature (true, false, both or NA)
+  #' @return: numeric or NA, the similarity of f1 and f2
+  
+  # Check the input data
+  if (! f1 %in% c("true","false","both", NA)) {
+    stop ("f1 must be of type character and either \"true\", \"false\", \"both\" or NA.")}
+
+  # Compute the similarity between the two features
+  # NA
+  if (is.na(f1)|is.na(f2)) {
+    sim = NA}
+  else if (f1 == "both"| f2 == "both") {
+  # BOTH/BOTH 
+      if (f1 == f2) {
+        sim = 1}
+  # BOTH/TRUE = TRUE/BOTH
+       else if (f1 == "true"|f2 == "true"){
+          sim = 0.5}
+  # BOTH/FALSE = FALSE/BOTH
+       else if (f1 == "false"|f2 == "false"){
+          sim = 0.5}}
+  # TRUE/TRUE
+    else if (f1 == "true" & f2 == "true") {
+        sim = 1}
+  # FALSE/FALSE 
+    else if (f1 == "false" & f2 == "false") {
+        sim = 1}
+  # TRUE/FALSE = FALSE/TRUE
+    else if (f1 != f2) {
+      sim = 0}
+  return (sim = sim)}
+```
+
+
+This is a wrapper for the function `feature_sim` to compute the similarity (or distance) between all languages in the sample. The output of the function is a $n \times n$ similarity matrix, where $n$ is the number of languages in the sample. 
+
+```{r function feature_similarity}
+
+simple_matching_features <- function (X, mode = "distance") {
+  #' This function computes the similarity/distance between all languages in the sample
+  #' 
+  #' @param X: a the data.frame of all features of all languages
+  #' @param mode: char, either `distance` or `similarity`  
+  #' @return: matrix, the similarity/distance matrix for all languages in the smaple
+  
+  if (! mode %in% c("distance", "similarity")) {
+    stop ("Use mode = \"distance\" or \"similarity\"")}
+  
+  # Define the size of the matrix
+  n <- nrow(X)
+  m <- ncol(X)
+  sm <- matrix(nrow=n, ncol=n)
+  
+  for(i in seq(1,n))
+    for(j in seq(1, n)){
+      
+      # Compute the simple matching coefficient 
+      sub <- X[c(i,j), ]
+      col <- seq(1,m)
+      matches <- sapply(col, function(a) 
+        feature_sim(sub[[a]][1], sub[[a]][2]), USE.NAMES = T)
+      
+      sum_matches <- sum(matches[!is.na(matches)])/length(matches[!is.na(matches)])
+      
+      if (mode == "similarity") {
+        sm[i,j]  <- sum_matches
+        sm[is.na(sm)] <- 0 }
+      else if (mode == "distance") {
+        sm[i,j] <- 1 - sum_matches
+        sm[is.na(sm)] <- 1}}
+  
+  rownames(sm) <- rownames(X)
+  colnames(sm) <- rownames(X)
+  return (sm)}
+```
+
+### Historical developments
+
+The following function computes the difference between the predecessor and the successor state of one feature based on the direction and magnitude of the change. With the four possible states in our input data (s. above), six distinct difference values are theoretically possible:
+
+- stability (true → true, both → both, false → false): 0
+- true → false: -1
+- false → true: 1
+- true → both, both → false: -0.5
+- false → both, both → true: 0.5
+- true/both/false → NA, NA → true/both/false, NA → NA: NA
+
+```{r hist diff}
+
+hist_diff <- function(f1, f2) {
+  #' This function computes the historical difference between a predecessor state f1 
+  #' and a successor state f2 of a feature.
+  #'
+  #' @param f1: predecessor state
+  #' @param f2: successor state
+  #' @return: numeric or NA, the difference between f1 and f2
+  
+  if (! c(f1) %in% c("true", "both", "false", NA) |
+      ! c(f2) %in% c("true", "both", "false", NA)) {
+    stop("f1 and f2 must be either 'true', 'both', 'false', or NA")
+  }
+  
+  # Compute the difference between two features
+  # NA
+  if (is.na(f1) | is.na(f2)) {
+    diff <- NA
+  }
+  
+  # f1: true
+  else if (f1 == "true") {
+    if (f2 == "true") {
+      diff <- 0
+    }
+    else if (f2 == "false") {
+      diff <- -1
+    }
+    else {
+      diff <- -0.5
+    }
+  }
+  
+  #f1: both
+  else if (f1 == "both") {
+    if (f2 == "true") {
+      diff <- 0.5
+    }
+    else if (f2 == "both") {
+      diff <- 0
+    }
+    else {
+      diff <- -0.5
+    }
+  }
+  
+  #f1: false
+  else {
+    if (f2 == "true") {
+      diff <- 1
+    }
+    else if (f2 == "both") {
+      diff <- 0.5
+    }
+    else {
+      diff <- 0
+    }
+  }
+  return(diff)
+}
+
+```
+
+The following function provides a wrapper for the function `hist_diff` to compute the historical differences for all features and languages in the sample. The output is a difference matrix with the features as columns and the lineages as rows.
+
+```{r hist diff wrapper}
+
+epoch_diffs <- function(before, after, langnames = NULL) {
+  
+  #' This function computes the historical differences for all
+  #' predecessor-successor-pairs in the sample
+  #'
+  #' @param before: predecessor feature matrix
+  #' @param after: successor feature matrix
+  #' @param langnames: vector, containing the rownames
+  #' @return: difference matrix
+
+  # Sanitize input
+  if (ncol(before) != ncol(after)) {
+    stop("`before` and `after` must have the same number of columns")
+  }
+  if (nrow(before) != nrow(after)) {
+    stop("`before` and `after` must contain the same number of languages")
+  }
+  
+  # Define the size of the matrix
+  n_cols <- ncol(before)
+  n_rows <- nrow(before)
+  diff_matrix <- matrix(nrow = n_rows, ncol = n_cols)
+  
+  for (i in 1:n_rows) {
+    for (j in 1:n_cols) {
+      diff_matrix[i,j] <- hist_diff(before[i,j], after[i,j])
+    }
+  }
+  
+  # Add language names if given
+  if (! is.null(langnames)) {
+    rownames(diff_matrix) <- langnames
+  }
+  
+  return(diff_matrix)
+}
+```
+
+### Feature correlation 
+
+The function `pw_correlation` computes the pairwise correlation between all language features. Since the features are categorical, a chi-squared test is performed. The p-value of the test is used as a measure for correlation. The function returns a matrix, where each cell *c\textsubscript{i,j}* is the pairwise correlation between the $i$-th and the $j$-th feature.
+
+```{r correlation features}
+
+pw_correlation <- function(data) {
+  #' This function computes the pairwise chi-squared test for a set of categorical features
+  #'  
+  #' @param data: a data.frame(2 to n columns), with values `true`, `false`, `both` and `NA`
+  #' @return: a correlation matrix
+  
+  # Use the full form of the feature 
+  # (some features are already in the full form)
+  names(data)[names(data) == "synt_dep"] <- "positional dependency"
+  names(data)[names(data) == "ling_number"] <- "inflection (number)"
+  names(data)[names(data) == "person"] <- "inflection (person)"
+  names(data)[names(data) == "ling_case"] <- "inflection (case)"
+  names(data)[names(data) == "pre"] <- "positioning (pre)"
+  names(data)[names(data) == "post"] <- "positioning (post)"
+  names(data)[names(data) == "pass"] <- "equivalence set (passive)"
+  names(data)[names(data) == "rec"] <- "equivalence set (reciprocal)"
+  rownames(data) <- NULL
+
+
+  
+  # Generate an empty matrix to capture all pairwise correlations
+  mat <- matrix(nrow = length(data), ncol = length(data))
+  
+  # Fill the matrix
+  for (r in 1:nrow(mat)) {
+    for (c in 1:ncol(mat)) {
+      
+      # Split "both" into "true" and "false"
+      l <- apply(data[, c(r, c)],1, function(x) {
+        a <- x[1] 
+        b <- x[2]
+        
+        if (is.na(a) || is.na(b)) {return (NULL)} 
+        
+        else if (!(all(c(a,b) %in% c("true", "false", "both")))) {
+          return (NULL)} 
+        
+        else if  (a != "both" && b != "both") {
+          r = c(a, b)
+          return (r)} 
+        
+        else if (a == "both" && b != "both") { 
+          r <- rbind(c("false", b),
+                     c("true", b))
+          colnames(r) <- names(x)
+          return(r)} 
+        
+        else if (a != "both" && b == "both") { 
+          r <- rbind(c(a, "false"),
+                     c(a, "true"))
+          colnames(r) <- names(x)
+          return(r)} 
+        
+        else if (a == "both" && b == "both") { 
+          r <- rbind(c("false", "false"),
+                     c("false", "true"),
+                     c("true", "false"),
+                     c("true", "true"))
+          colnames(r) <- names(x)
+          return(r)}})
+      
+      if (is.list(l)) {
+        test_in <- do.call(rbind, l)} 
+      
+      else {
+        test_in <- as.data.frame(t(l))}
+      
+      cont_table <- table(factor(test_in[,1], 
+                                 level=c("true","false")),
+                          factor(test_in[,2],
+                                 level=c("true","false")))
+     
+       # Perform the chi-squared test
+      test_out <- chisq.test(cont_table, simulate.p.value = T)
+      
+      # If the chi-squared test yields NA (for too few observations)
+      # Perform Fisher's exact test
+      if (is.na(test_out)) {
+        test_out <- fisher.test(cont_table)}
+      mat[r,c] <- test_out$p.value}}
+  
+  colnames(mat) <- names(data)
+  rownames(mat) <- names(data)
+  return(mat)}
+
+#' This is a helper function to compute the upper triangle of the correlation matrix
+#' @param mat: the correlation matrix
+#' @return: the upper triangle of the correlation matrix (including the diagonal)
+
+get_upper_tri <- function(mat){
+    mat[lower.tri(mat, diag = T)]<- NA
+    return(mat)}
+```
+
+### Visualization 
+
+The function `level_plot_epochs` is a helper function to generate a heat map of the change in similarity between all language pairs. 
+```{r, plot epochs wrapper}
+
+
+level_plot_epochs <- function(change) {
+  #' The function visualizes the change in similarity between n languages in a level plot
+  #'  
+  #' @param change: a matrix capturing the change in similarity between the n languages
+  
+  e <- ggplot(data = change, aes(Var2, Var1, z = value))
+  e <- e + geom_tile(aes(fill = value), color="grey") 
+  e <- e + scale_fill_gradient2(low = "lightblue" , mid = "white",
+                                high = "orange", midpoint = 0, space = "Lab",
+                                na.value = "grey50", guide = "colourbar", 
+                                limits=c(-1.0, 1.0), 
+                                name = "Change in similarity")
+  e <- e + coord_fixed()
+  e <- e + theme(panel.grid.major=element_blank(), 
+                 panel.grid.minor=element_blank(),
+                 panel.background=element_blank(), 
+                 legend.position=c(0.2, 0.8),
+                 legend.title=element_text(size=10, face="bold"),
+                 axis.title.x=element_blank(),
+                 axis.title.y=element_blank(),
+                 axis.text.x=element_text(angle = 45, vjust = 1, hjust = 1))
+  e <- e + scale_y_discrete(position = "right")
+  return(e)
+}
+```
+
+The function `correlation_plot` is a helper function to compute and plot the correlation matrix. 
+
+```{r}
+  
+  correlation_plot <- function(corr_matrix, col) {
+  #' The function visualizes the correlation matrix
+  #'  
+  #' @param x: the data.frame for which the correlation is computed
+  #' @col: a color ramp
+  
+    # Melt the correlation matrix into a format that ggplot can interpret
+  
+  corr_matrix_ut <- get_upper_tri(corr_matrix)
+  corr_matrix_melted <- melt(corr_matrix_ut, na.rm = TRUE)
+
+  corr_matrix_melted$discrete <- cut(corr_matrix_melted$value, 
+                                     breaks=c(0, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 1), 
+                                     labels=c("< 0.01", "0.01 - 0.05", "0.05 - 0.1",
+                                              "> 0.1"))
+
+  corr_matrix_melted$discrete <- factor(corr_matrix_melted$discrete, 
+                                        levels=
+                                          rev(levels(corr_matrix_melted$discrete)))
+
+  h <- ggplot(data = corr_matrix_melted, aes(Var2, Var1, fill = discrete)) 
+  h <- h + geom_tile(color = "grey")
+  h <- h + scale_fill_manual(values=c(col[1], col[2], col[3], col[4]), 
+                           name=expression(paste(Chi^{2}, " test of independence", 
+                                                 " (p-value)"))) 
+  h <- h + theme(panel.grid.major=element_blank(), 
+                 panel.grid.minor=element_blank(),
+               panel.background = element_blank(), 
+               axis.title.x=element_blank(),
+               axis.title.y=element_blank(),
+               axis.text.x=element_text(angle = 45, vjust = 1, hjust = 1),
+               legend.position=c(0.3, 0.8),
+               legend.title=element_text(size=10, face="bold"),
+               legend.text.align=1)
+  
+  h <- h + scale_y_discrete(position="right") + coord_fixed()
+  return(h)
+}
+
+```
+
+The function `plot_grouping_violins` is a helper function to visualize the density of calculated changes in similarity inside specified language groupings.
+
+```{r violin function}
+
+plot_grouping_violins <- function(sim, grouping1, grouping2, names) {
+  #' The function visualizes the density of calculated changes inside of and between
+  #' two specified groupings of languages
+  #' 
+  #' @param sim: a full similarity matrix
+  #' @param grouping1: first grouping of languages
+  #' @param grouping2: second grouping of languages
+  #' @param names: names for both groupings
+  
+  grouped <- tibble(c(as.dist(sim[grouping1, grouping1]),
+      sim[grouping1, grouping2],
+      as.dist(sim[grouping2, grouping2])),
+    c(replicate(length(as.dist(sim[grouping1, grouping1])),
+                paste(names[1], names[1], sep = "—")),
+      replicate(length(sim[grouping1, grouping2]),
+                paste(names[1], names[2], sep = "—")),
+      replicate(length(as.dist(sim[grouping2, grouping2])),
+                paste(names[2], names[2], sep = "—"))),
+    .name_repair = "minimal")
+
+  colnames(grouped) <- c("change", "grouping")
+  
+  plt <- ggplot(grouped, aes(x = grouping, y = change)) +
+    geom_violin(draw_quantiles = c(0.25, 0.5,0.75)) + 
+    scale_y_continuous(limits = c(-1,1)) +
+    theme_minimal()
+  return(plt)
+}
+```
+
+The function `plot_posterior_density_bernoulli` is a helper function to visualize the posterior distribution of a Bernoulli model. 
+```{r bernoulli plot}
+
+plot_posterior_density_bernoulli <- function(bernoulli, col, area, percentile) {
+  #' The function visualizes the posterior distribution of a Bernoulli model
+  #'  
+  #' @param bernoulli: posterior distribution of the probability of success 
+  #'                   in a Bernoulli model as returned from RStan 
+  #' @param col: char, the color used for visualizing the distribution
+  #' @param area: char, the area for which the model is computed (used for title only)
+  #' @param percentile: numeric, the percentile of a success of 0.5
+  
+  perc <- paste(format(round(percentile, 3) *100, nsmall=1), "%")
+  c_perc <- paste(format(round(1-percentile, 3) *100, nsmall=1), "%")
+  
+  p <- ggplot(bernoulli, aes(x=values)) 
+  p <- p + geom_density(aes(group=ind), 
+                        col = NA, fill = col, alpha=0.01)
+  p <- p + geom_vline(xintercept = 0.5, linetype="dotted")
+  p <- p + xlim(0, 1) + ylim(0,10)
+  p <- p + theme_minimal()
+  p <- p + ggtitle(paste("Posterior density of a gain in similarity for ", area, 
+                         " pairs \n(", n_samp," random samples)", sep="")) 
+  p <- p + xlab("Probability of success (p)") + ylab("Posterior Density")
+  p <- p + annotate("label", x=0.5, y=6.8, label="Cumulative density on each side", 
+                    label.size=NA, size=3.5)
+  p <- p + annotate("text", x=0.41, y=6, label=perc, hjust=0, size=3.5) 
+  p <- p + annotate("text", x=0.52, y=6, label=c_perc, hjust=0, size=3.5)
+  return(p) 
+}
+```
+
+The function `plot_posterior_density_beta` is a helper function to visualize the posterior predictive distribution of the Beta model.
+
+```{r beta plot}
+plot_posterior_density_beta <- function(beta, col, area) {
+  #' The function visualizes the posterior predictive distribution of a Beta model
+  #'  
+  #' @param beta: posterior predictive of the probability of beta
+  #'              as returned from RStan 
+  #' @param col: char, the color used for visualizing the distribution
+  #' @param area: char, the area for which the model is computed (used for title only)
+  
+  p <- ggplot(beta, aes(x=values))  
+  p <- p + geom_density(aes(group=ind), col = NA, fill = col, alpha=0.03)
+  p <- p + geom_vline(xintercept = 0, linetype="dotted") 
+  p <- p + xlim(-1, 1) 
+  p <- p + theme_minimal() 
+  p <- p + ggtitle(
+    paste("Posterior predictive distribution of change in similarity for ", area, " pairs\n(", 
+                n_samp," random samples)", sep="")) 
+  p <- p + xlab("Change in similarity") 
+  p <- p + ylab("Posterior Predictive Density")
+  return (p)
+}
+
+```
+
+The function `plot_map` is a helper function to visualize the locations of the languages on a map. 
+```{r}
+
+plot_map <- function(locations, cols){
+  #' This is a wrapper function to visualizes the locations of the languages on a map
+  #'  
+  #' @param locations: SpatialPolygonsDataFrame, the locations of the languages
+  #' @param cols: vector, colors to be used in the map
+  #' @return: ggplot, the map
+  
+  locations$lang_id <- as.character(locations$lang_id)
+  # Convert the SpatialPolygonsDataFrame into a format that ggplot can interpret
+  loc <- fortify(locations, region="lang_id")
+  loc <- left_join(loc, locations@data[, c("lang_id", "name")], 
+                   by=c('id'= 'lang_id'))
+  
+  
+  # Visualize the map
+  s_ext <- 44
+  n_ext <- 68
+  e_ext <- 15 
+  w_ext <- -20
+  param1 <- (n_ext - s_ext)/6 + s_ext
+  param2 <- n_ext - (n_ext - s_ext)/6 
+  
+  world <- map_data("world")
+  gg <- ggplot()
+  gg <- gg + coord_map(projection = "lambert", parameters=c(param1,
+                                                            param2),  
+                       xlim = c(w_ext, e_ext), ylim = c(s_ext,n_ext))
+  gg <- gg + geom_map(data=world, map=world, aes(long, lat,
+                                                 map_id=region), 
+                      color="lightgrey", fill='lightgrey')
+  gg <- gg + geom_map(data=loc, map=loc, aes(long, lat, map_id=id, 
+                                             fill=factor(id)),
+                      colour = NA, size = 1)
+  gg <- gg + scale_fill_manual(values=alpha(cols, 0.3),
+                               labels=unique(loc$name))
+  gg <- gg + theme_minimal()
+  gg <- gg + theme(axis.title.x = element_blank(),
+                   axis.title.y = element_blank(),
+                   axis.text.x = element_blank(),
+                   axis.text.y = element_blank(),
+                   
+                   legend.position="bottom", 
+                   legend.direction="vertical",
+                   legend.title=element_blank())
+  return(gg)
+}
+```
+
+The function `plot_simulated_posterior` is used in the appendix to plot the posterior distribution of simulated zero-difference pairs. 
+
+```{r}
+plot_simulated_posterior <- function(bernoulli_sample, col, size, percentile) {
+  
+  #' The function visualizes the posterior distribution of random Bernoulli samples
+  #' @param bernoulli_sample: posterior distribution of the probability of success 
+  #'                          in a Bernoulli model as returned from RStan 
+  #' @param col: char, the color used for visualizing the distribution
+  #' @param area: char, the samples size (used for title only)
+  #' @param percentile: numeric, the percentile of a success of 0.5
+  
+  perc <- paste(format(round(percentile, 3) *100, nsmall=1), "%")
+  c_perc <- paste(format(round(1-percentile, 3) *100, nsmall=1), "%")
+  
+  p <- ggplot(bernoulli_sample, aes(x=values)) 
+  p <- p + geom_density(aes(group=ind), 
+                        col = NA, fill = col, alpha=0.01)
+  p <- p + geom_vline(xintercept = 0.5, linetype="dotted")
+  p <- p + xlim(0, 1) + ylim(0,10)
+  p <- p + annotate("label", x=0.5, y=8.8, label="Cumulative density on each side", 
+                    label.size=NA, size=2)
+  p <- p + annotate("text", x=0.38, y=8, label=perc, hjust=0, size=2) 
+  p <- p + annotate("text", x=0.55, y=8, label=c_perc, hjust=0, size=2)
+  p <- p + annotate("label", x=0.75 , y=10, 
+                    label=paste("sample size = ", size, sep =" "), 
+                    hjust=0, size=2, label.size=NA)
+  p <- p + theme_minimal()
+  p <- p + theme(axis.title=element_blank())
+  return(p)
+}
+```
+
+
+### Bayesian analysis
+
+All Bayesian analysis is performed using the `RStan` package. The function `stan_bernoulli_wrapper` is a helper function to iterate through a list of binary observations, estimate the posterior distribution of a Bernoulli model for each and aggregate the results. 
+
+```{r bernoulli wrapper}
+
+stan_bernoulli_wrapper <- function (bin_data, stan) {
+  #' This is a wrapper function to compute the posterior distribution of a
+  #' Bernoulli model using RStan
+  #'  
+  #' @param bin_data: list,  the binary observations (0,1)
+  #' @param stan: char, the RStan Bernoulli model
+  #' @return the posterior distribution of the Bernoulli model
+  
+  bernoulli <- sapply(bin_data, function (x) {
+    model <- sampling(stan, data=list(y=x, N=length(x)), 
+                      iter=1000, chains=1)
+    posterior <- extract(model)$p}, simplify = T)
+  colnames(bernoulli) <- paste ("P", c(1:ncol(bernoulli)))
+  return(stack(as.data.frame(bernoulli)))}
+
+```
+
+The function `stan_beta_wrapper` is a helper function to iterate through a list of normalized observations, estimate the posterior predictive distribution of a Beta model for each and aggregate the results. 
+```{r beta wrapper}
+
+stan_beta_wrapper <- function (norm_data, stan) {
+  #' This is a wrapper function to compute the posterior predictive distribution of a
+  #' Beta model using RStan
+  #'  
+  #' @param norm_data: float, the observations (normalized between 0 and 1)
+  #' @param stan: char, the RStan Beta model
+  #' @return the posterior predictive distribution of the Beta model
+
+  beta <- sapply(norm_data, function (x) {
+    model <- sampling(object=stan,
+                      data=list(y=x, N=length(x)), 
+                      iter=1000, chains=1)
+    pred <- extract(model, 'y_pred')
+    pred <- unlist(pred, use.names=FALSE)})
+  colnames(beta) <- paste ("y", c(1:ncol(beta)))
+  return(stack(as.data.frame(beta)))}
+```
+
+# Spatio-temporal distribution
+
+The following maps show the spatial distributions of all languages in our sample divided according to the three relevant time periods (under )800 CE, 1200 CE, and 1900 CE).
+
+```{r plot_map_800, message=FALSE, warning=FALSE, fig.cap="Map of the sample languages before epoch 1 (800 AD)"}
+
+
+map_800_1 <- locations_epoch1_bef_sp[locations_epoch1_bef_sp$name %in% 
+                                    c("Old Norse", 
+                                      "Old French (Francien)",
+                                      "Old High German"), ]
+
+map_800_2 <- locations_epoch1_bef_sp[locations_epoch1_bef_sp$name %in% 
+                                    c("Old English", "Old Irish"), ]
+
+map_800_3 <- locations_epoch1_bef_sp[locations_epoch1_bef_sp$name %in% 
+                                    c("Old French (Anglo-Norman)",
+                                      "Old Saxon", "Old Dutch"), ] 
+
+cols <- rainbow(length(unique(locations_epoch1_bef_sp$lang_id)))
+
+p1 <- plot_map(map_800_1, cols[c(2, 4, 8)])
+p2 <- plot_map(map_800_2, cols[c(3, 6)])
+p3 <- plot_map(map_800_3, cols[c(1, 5, 7)])
+
+grid.draw(cbind(ggplotGrob(p1), ggplotGrob(p2), ggplotGrob(p3),
+          size="first"))
+
+```
+
+```{r plot_map_1200, message=FALSE, warning=FALSE, fig.cap="Map of the sample languages before epoch 2 (1200 AD)"}
+
+map_1200_1 <- locations_epoch2_bef_sp[locations_epoch2_bef_sp$name %in% 
+                              c("Old Norse", "Older Scots",
+                                "Old French (Francien)", 
+                                "Middle Cornish", "Middle Welsh"), ]
+
+
+map_1200_2 <- locations_epoch2_bef_sp[locations_epoch2_bef_sp$name %in% 
+                              c( "Moyen Picard", 
+                                "Old French (Anglo-Norman)", 
+                                "Old Frisian", "Middle Dutch",
+                                "Middle High German"), ] 
+
+map_1200_3 <- locations_epoch2_bef_sp[locations_epoch2_bef_sp$name %in% 
+                              c("Middle Irish", "Middle English", 
+                                "Middle Breton", "Middle Low German"), ] 
+
+cols <- rainbow(length(unique(locations_epoch2_bef_sp$lang_id)))
+
+p1 <- plot_map(map_1200_1, cols[c(1, 4, 7, 10, 14)])
+p2 <- plot_map(map_1200_2, cols[c(2, 5, 8, 11, 13)])
+p3 <- plot_map(map_1200_3, cols[c(3, 6, 9, 12)])
+
+grid.draw(cbind(ggplotGrob(p1), ggplotGrob(p2), ggplotGrob(p3),
+          size="first"))
+
+
+```
+
+
+```{r plot_map_1900, message=FALSE, warning=FALSE, fig.cap="Map of the sample languages after epoch 2 (1900 AD)"}
+
+map_1900_1 <- locations_epoch2_aft_sp[locations_epoch2_aft_sp$name %in% 
+                              c("Central Breton", "Manx", "Danish", 
+                                "Modern Dutch", "Normand", 
+                                "Modern Low German East Frisia", 
+                                "Irish English", "Scottish Gaelic"), ]
+
+map_1900_2 <- locations_epoch2_aft_sp[locations_epoch2_aft_sp$name %in% 
+                              c("Jèrriais",
+                                "Modern Low German Dithmarschen",
+                                "Modern British English", 
+                                "Modern Standard French", 
+                                "Modern Icelandic",
+                                "Faroese", "Fering",
+                                "Norwegian"), ]
+
+map_1900_3 <- locations_epoch2_aft_sp[locations_epoch2_aft_sp$name %in% 
+                              c("Scots", "Late Cornish", 
+                                "Modern Irish", "Modern West Frisian", 
+                                "Northern Welsh", "Southern Welsh",
+                                "Picard", "Modern High German"), ]
+
+cols <- rainbow(length(unique(locations_epoch2_aft_sp$lang_id)))
+
+
+p1 <- plot_map(map_1900_1, cols[c(1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22)])
+p2 <- plot_map(map_1900_2, cols[c(2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23)])
+p3 <- plot_map(map_1900_3, cols[c(3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24)])
+
+
+grid.draw(cbind(ggplotGrob(p1), ggplotGrob(p2), ggplotGrob(p3),
+          size="first"))
+```
+
+
+# Explorative analysis
+## The pairwise correlation between features  
+
+Before computing similarities between languages we test the features for independence. We use the function `pw_correlation` to assess to which degree the features are pairwise correlated. 
+
+```{r correlation matrix}
+#warning=FALSE, message=FALSE, results='hide'
+# Correlation 800 AD 
+corr_matrix_epoch_1_bef <- pw_correlation(epoch1_bef[,1:13])
+corr_matrix_epoch_2_bef <- pw_correlation(epoch2_bef[,1:13])
+corr_matrix_epoch_2_aft <- pw_correlation(epoch2_aft[,1:13])
+
+# Aggregate all observations
+all_epochs <- do.call("rbind", list(epoch1_bef[,1:13], 
+                                    epoch2_bef[,1:13],
+                                    epoch2_aft[,1:13]))
+
+corr_all <- pw_correlation(all_epochs)
+
+```
+
+Since the features ultimately contribute to defining language similarity, we need to make sure that the observed correlations do not imply causality. Figure \ref{fig:correlation_matrix_800}, \ref{fig:correlation_matrix_1200}, and \ref{fig:correlation_matrix_1900} show the pairwise correlations between all features at 800 AD, 1200 AD and 1900 AD. Two observations concerning the correlation matrices are important: first, the amount of pairwise correlations increases over time, and second, the only correlations present in both 1200 and 1900 CE are those of *inflection (number)* and *inflection (person)*, and *equivalence set (reciprocal)* and *positioning (pre)*. We take this steep increase in, and the relative instability of, pairwise correlations as an indication that these developments are a consequence of increased language contact that leads to a decrease of entropy in the sample data. Languages that become more similar over time will at one point have the same features and will thus lead to a lot of correlation in the sample.
+
+```{r plot_correlation_matrix_800, out.width='\\textwidth', fig.width=8, fig.height=6, fig.cap="Correlation matrix of all features at the beginning of epoch 1 (800 AD)\\label{fig:correlation_matrix_800}"}
+
+# Define colors for the heat map
+col <- colorRampPalette(c("white", "orange"))(4)
+correlation_plot(corr_matrix_epoch_1_bef, col=col)
+```
+
+```{r plot_correlation_matrix_1200, out.width='\\textwidth', fig.width=8, fig.height=6, fig.cap="Correlation matrix of all features at the beginning of epoch 2 (1200 AD)\\label{fig:correlation_matrix_1200}"}
+
+# Define colors for the heat map
+col <- colorRampPalette(c("white", "orange"))(4)
+correlation_plot(corr_matrix_epoch_2_bef, col=col)
+```
+
+```{r plot_correlation_matrix_1900, out.width='\\textwidth', fig.width=8, fig.height=6, fig.cap="Correlation matrix of all features at the end of epoch 2 (1900 AD)\\label{fig:correlation_matrix_1900}"}
+
+# Define colors for the heat map
+col <- colorRampPalette(c("white", "orange"))(4)
+correlation_plot(corr_matrix_epoch_2_aft, col=col)
+```
+
+## Exploration of changes
+To explore the nature and direction of the changes in our data set, we compute a difference matrix for each of the two epochs using the function `epoch_diffs()` described above, produce a distance object and feed it to `splitstree` to construct a neighborNET of both epochs.
+
+```{r data exploration, eval=F}
+diffs_epoch1 <- epoch_diffs(epoch1_bef[,1:13], epoch1_aft[,1:13],
+                            langnames = epoch1_aft$name)
+diffs_epoch1_dist <- dist(diffs_epoch1)
+splitstree(diffs_epoch1_dist, nexus.file = "epoch1.nex")
+
+diffs_epoch2 <- epoch_diffs(epoch2_bef[,1:13], epoch2_aft[,1:13],
+                            langnames = epoch2_aft$name)
+diffs_epoch2_dist <- dist(diffs_epoch2)
+splitstree(diffs_epoch2_dist, nexus.file = "epoch2.nex")
+```
+
+\begin{figure}
+\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{epoch1_nn}
+\caption{NeighborNET of changes  in epoch 1}
+\label{neighbornet-epoch1}
+\end{figure}
+\begin{figure}
+\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{epoch2_nn}
+\caption{NeighborNET of changes in epoch 2}
+\label{neighbornet-epoch2}
+\end{figure}
+
+In epoch 1 (Figure \ref{neighbornet-epoch1}), we do not see much of a pattern — mostly because the overall change and the sample of languages are quite small. In epoch 2 (Figure \ref{neighbornet-epoch2}), however, the languages in Britain and Ireland cluster against those on the continent.
+
+
+
+
+
+## The change in similarity between North-West European languages
+
+### Epoch 1 - 800 A.D. to 1200 A.D.
+We use the function `simple_matching_features` to compute the pairwise similarity between languages at 800 A.D. and 1200 A.D. We subtract the two resulting matrices and obtain the change of similarity during epoch 1.
+
+```{r sim_epoch1, fig.height=5, fig.cap="Change in similarity during epoch 1"}
+
+# Similarity before and after epoch 1
+sim_epoch1_bef <- simple_matching_features(epoch1_bef[,1:13], 
+                                           mode = "similarity")
+sim_epoch1_aft <- simple_matching_features(epoch1_aft[,1:13], 
+                                           mode = "similarity")
+
+# Change in similarity during epoch 1
+change_epoch1 <- sim_epoch1_aft - sim_epoch1_bef
+
+
+# Convert the changes into a format that ggplot can interpret
+change_epoch1_ut <- get_upper_tri(change_epoch1)
+colnames(change_epoch1_ut) <- epoch1_aft$name
+rownames(change_epoch1_ut) <- epoch1_aft$name
+change_epoch1_melted <- melt(change_epoch1_ut, na.rm = TRUE)
+change_epoch1_melted$Var1 <- factor(change_epoch1_melted$Var1)
+change_epoch1_melted$Var2 <- factor(change_epoch1_melted$Var2)
+
+# Plot the changes
+level_plot_epochs(change_epoch1_melted)
+```
+
+### Epoch 2 - 1200 A.D. to 1900 A.D.
+For epoch 2, we first compute the similarity for all languages at 1200 A.D. and 1900 A.D. As before, we subtract these and obtain the change of similarity during epoch 2.
+
+```{r sim_epoch2, out.width='\\textwidth', fig.width=9, fig.height=6, fig.cap="Change in similarity during epoch 2\\label{fig:change_epoch2}"}
+
+# Epoch 2
+# Similarity before and after epoch 2
+sim_epoch2_bef <- simple_matching_features(epoch2_bef[,1:13], 
+                                           mode = "similarity")
+sim_epoch2_aft <- simple_matching_features(epoch2_aft[,1:13], 
+                                           mode = "similarity")
+
+# Change in similarity during epoch 2
+change_epoch2 <- sim_epoch2_aft - sim_epoch2_bef
+
+# Convert the changes into a format that ggplot can interpret
+change_epoch2_ut <- get_upper_tri(change_epoch2)
+
+colnames(change_epoch2_ut) <- epoch2_aft$name
+rownames(change_epoch2_ut) <- epoch2_aft$name
+change_epoch2_melted <- melt(change_epoch2_ut, na.rm = TRUE)
+change_epoch2_melted$Var1 <- factor(change_epoch2_melted$Var1)
+change_epoch2_melted$Var2 <- factor(change_epoch2_melted$Var2)
+
+# Plot the changes
+level_plot_epochs(change_epoch2_melted)
+```
+
+The clustering suggests that during epoch 2 two distinct linguistic areas emerged: Britain and Ireland and continental Europe.  We compare the change in similarity between the languages within and across the two regions, yielding change in three different groups:
+
+- *Isles - isles*: The change in similarity between languages from Britain and Ireland
+- *Isles - continent*: The change in similarity between languages from Britain and Ireland and continental Europe
+- *Continent - continent*: The change in similarity between languages from continental Europe
+
+
+
+```{r violin_epoch1, out.width='\\textwidth', fig.width = 9, fig.height = 6, fig.cap='Violin plot of the change in similarity during epoch 2 by geographical grouping\\label{fig:change_epoch1_vioplot}'}
+
+isles_epoch1_index <- c("1", "2", "5", "7")
+continent_epoch1_index <- c("3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "31")
+
+plot_grouping_violins(change_epoch1, isles_epoch1_index,
+                      continent_epoch1_index,
+                      names = c("isles", "continent"))
+```
+
+In the first epoch (Fig. \ref{fig:change_epoch1_vioplot}), we see little to no change, most of the changes in similarity are ±0. 
+
+In the second epoch (Fig. \ref{fig:change_epoch2_vioplot}), however, larger differences between the groups become apparent. While the languages in Britain and Ireland seem to converge, the languages on the continent keep a more or less equal distance with a slight tendency towards divergence. The two groups as a whole seem to diverge from each other.
+
+```{r violin_epoch2, out.width='\\textwidth', fig.width = 9, fig.height = 6, fig.cap='Violin plot of the change in similarity during epoch 2 by geographical grouping\\label{fig:change_epoch2_vioplot}'}
+
+# Assign languages to one of two areal regions
+isles_epoch2_index <- c("9", "10", "11", "12", "13", "15", "16", "17", "18")
+continent_epoch2_index <-c ("14", "19", "20", "21", "22", "23", "24", 
+                            "25", "26", "27", "28", "29", "30", "32", "33")
+
+
+plot_grouping_violins(change_epoch2, isles_epoch2_index, continent_epoch2_index, 
+                      names = c("isles", "continent"))
+```
+
+# Bayesian analysis of gain and loss in similarity within and across areal regions
+
+For epoch 2 we analyse the change in similarity in each of the three groups by estimatinig the probability that the changes in similarity arose by chance.
+
+## Random samples
+
+ Distances (or similarities) in a pairwise matrix are not independent and neither is the change in similarity in Figure \ref{fig:change_epoch2}. Consider the distance between the points $A$, $B$ and $C$. If the distance $d(AB)$ and $d(BC)$ are known and the triangle inequality holds, the distance $d(AC)$ must lie in the range $[d(AB) +d(BC), |d(AB)-d(BC)|)]$. To account for the possible influence of correlated distances we draw pairwise samples from the data, such that each sample contains only independent measurements. The maximum number of independent observations for the smallest group defines the sample size. In our case, *Isles - isles* is the smallest group comprising nine languages, from which one can derive eight independent distances (or similarities). Thus, each sample comprises the change of similarity between eight random language pairs. For each of the three groups we draw 1000 samples. 
+
+
+```{r define areal regions}
+
+# Define the number of observations per sample and the number of samples
+N = length(isles_epoch2_index)-1
+n_samp = 1000
+
+# Draw independent Isles-isles samples 
+isles_isles_perm <- lapply(c(1:n_samp), function (x) {
+  isles_samples <- sample(isles_epoch2_index, replace = FALSE)
+  i = isles_samples[-1]
+  j = isles_samples[-length(isles_samples)]
+  isles_isles = change_epoch2[cbind(i,j)]
+  return (isles_isles)
+})
+
+# Draw independent Isles-continent sample
+isles_continent_perm <- lapply(c(1:n_samp), function (x) {
+ 
+  i <- sample(isles_epoch2_index, size = N, replace = FALSE)
+  j <- sample(continent_epoch2_index, size = N, replace = FALSE)
+  isles_cont = change_epoch2[cbind(i,j)]
+  return (isles_cont)
+})
+
+# Draw independentContinent-continent samples
+continent_continent_perm <- lapply(c(1:n_samp), function (X) {
+  continent_sample <- sample(continent_epoch2_index, replace = FALSE)
+  i = continent_sample[1:(N)]
+  j = continent_sample[(length(continent_sample)-(N-1)):length(continent_sample)]
+  continent_continent = change_epoch2[cbind(i,j)]
+  return (continent_continent)
+})
+
+
+```
+
+
+## Bernoulli model
+
+We model the change in similarity as a Bernoulli process $Y \sim \textrm{Bernoulli} (p)$, where $p$ is the probability of success. We carry out Bayesian inference to estimate the posterior probability of $p$ given the observed pairwise change in similarity in each sample. We first binarize the data. All negative values (i.e. a loss in similarity) are set to `0`, all non-negative values (i.e. a gain in similarity) are set to `1`. 
+
+
+```{r binarize}
+
+# Binarize the data 
+isles_isles_perm_bin <- lapply(isles_isles_perm, function (x) {
+  y <- ifelse(x == 0, rbinom(n = 1, size = 1, p = 0.5), 
+              ifelse (x > 0, 1, 0))
+  return (y)})
+
+isles_continent_perm_bin <- lapply(isles_continent_perm, function (x) {
+  y <- ifelse(x == 0, rbinom(n = 1, size = 1, p = 0.5), 
+              ifelse (x > 0, 1, 0))
+  return (y)})
+
+continent_continent_perm_bin <- lapply(continent_continent_perm, function (x) {
+  y <- ifelse(x == 0, rbinom(n = 1, size = 1, p = 0.5), 
+              ifelse (x > 0, 1, 0))
+  return (y)})
+
+# Retrieve the number of pairs for which the change in similarity is zero before binarizing
+isles_isles_zeros <- sapply(isles_isles_perm, function (x) {
+  zeros <- ifelse(x == 0, 1, 0)
+  nr_zeros = sum(zeros == 1)
+  return (nr_zeros)})
+
+
+isles_continent_zeros <- sapply(isles_continent_perm, function (x) {
+  zeros <- ifelse(x == 0, 1, 0)
+  nr_zeros = sum(zeros == 1)
+  return (nr_zeros)})
+
+
+continent_continent_zeros <- sapply(continent_continent_perm, function (x) {
+  zeros <- ifelse(x == 0, 1, 0)
+  nr_zeros = sum(zeros == 1)
+  return (nr_zeros)})
+
+```
+
+
+Pairs for which the change in similarity is zero (zero-difference pairs) are randomly set to either `0` or `1`. A detailed explanation for why this does not bias the results is given in the appendix. Moreover, there are only very few zero-difference pairs - on average `r mean(isles_isles_zeros)` per sample for *Isles - isles*,  `r mean(isles_continent_zeros)` for *Isles - continent* and `r mean(continent_continent_zeros)` for *Continent - continent*. Thus, their influence on the results is small.
+
+In our Bernoulli model $p$ is the probability of a gain in similarity. We estimate the posterior distribution of $p$ in each sample using a uniform prior in the interval $[0,1]$. We can explain the intuition of the Bernoulli model with the example of a coin toss. Prior to tossing the coin we do not not know if the coin is fair or biased. Thus, our prior belief of `p`, the probability of heads, is uniform over the interval $[0,1]$. Suppose now that the coin is spun eight times and yields the sequence `0,1,1,1,1,1,1,1`, where `1` is heads and `0` is tails. Having observed seven heads out of eight trials, we gain evidence that the coin is biased towards heads. The posterior distribution of $p$ captures this updated belief of `p`. Similarly, having observed a gain in similarity in seven out of eight language pairs, we gain evidence that we deal with a biased process in which language similarity tends to increase. 
+
+
+We define the Bernoulli model in `RStan` and perform Bayesian inference.  `RStan` calls `Stan`, a program for specifying and computing statistical models (@carpenter_etal_2016). 
+```{r bernoulli model, eval=FALSE}
+
+# Define Bernoulli model 
+bernoulli_model <- "data {
+    int<lower=0> N;
+    int<lower=0,upper=1> y[N];
+  }
+  parameters {
+    real<lower=0> p;
+  }
+  model {
+    p ~ beta(1, 1);
+    y ~ bernoulli(p);
+  }"
+
+# Compile Bernoulli model
+stan_bernoulli <- stan_model(model_code=bernoulli_model)
+```
+
+We perform Bayesian inference for the Bernoulli model for each of the 1000 random samples per group (*Isles - isles*,  *Isles - continent* and *Continent - continent*). We estimate the posterior distribution for each sample. Figures \ref{fig:bernoulli_isles_isles}, \ref{fig:bernoulli_isles_continent} and \ref{fig:bernoulli_continent_continent} show an overlay of all posterior distributions per group. 
+
+### Isles-isles 
+
+```{r bernoulli isles isles, eval=TRUE}
+
+bernoulli_isles_isles <- stan_bernoulli_wrapper(isles_isles_perm_bin, 
+                                                stan_bernoulli)
+
+```
+
+
+```{r plot_isles_isles, fig.cap="Posterior density of a gain in language similarity for Isles-isles pairs\\label{fig:bernoulli_isles_isles}"}
+
+# Compute percentile for p=0.5
+perc_isles_isles <- ecdf(bernoulli_isles_isles$values)(0.5)
+
+# Plot posterior
+plot_posterior_density_bernoulli(bernoulli_isles_isles, "lightblue", "Isles - isles",
+                                 perc_isles_isles) 
+```
+
+
+### Isles-continent
+```{r bernoulli isles continent, eval=TRUE}
+
+bernoulli_isles_continent <- stan_bernoulli_wrapper(isles_continent_perm_bin, 
+                                                    stan_bernoulli)
+```
+
+```{r plot_isles_continent, fig.cap="Posterior density of a gain in language similarity for Isles-continent pairs\\label{fig:bernoulli_isles_continent}"}
+
+# Compute percentile for p=0.5
+perc_isles_continent <- ecdf(bernoulli_isles_continent$values)(0.5)
+
+# Plot posterior
+plot_posterior_density_bernoulli(bernoulli_isles_continent, "orange", "Isles - continent", 
+                                 perc_isles_continent)
+```
+
+
+### Continent-continent
+```{r bernoulli continent continent, eval=TRUE}
+
+bernoulli_continent_continent <- stan_bernoulli_wrapper(continent_continent_perm_bin, 
+                                                        stan_bernoulli)
+
+```
+
+```{r plot_continent_continent, fig.cap="Posterior density of a gain in language similarity for Continent-continent pairs\\label{fig:bernoulli_continent_continent}"}
+
+# Compute percentile for p=0.5
+perc_continent_continent <- ecdf(bernoulli_continent_continent$values)(0.5)
+
+# Plot posterior
+plot_posterior_density_bernoulli(bernoulli_continent_continent, "lightgreen", 
+                                 "Continent - continent", perc_continent_continent)
+```
+
+During epoch 2 the change between languages in Britain and Ireland is strongly biased towards an increase in similarity (Figure \ref{fig:bernoulli_isles_isles}). In contrast, the change between languages in Britain and Ireland and languages in continental Europe is biased towards a decrease in similarity (Figure \ref{fig:bernoulli_isles_continent}). The change between languages in continental Europe is biased towards a decrease in similarity as well, however slightly less (Figure \ref{fig:bernoulli_continent_continent}).
+
+We take this as evidence that the observed increase of similarity in *isles-isles* pairings and the concommitant decrease of similarity between *isles-continent* pairings is not random.
+
+
+
+## Beta model
+
+We model the change in similarity for *isles - isles* during epoch 2 as a beta distribution $Y \sim \textrm{Beta}(\alpha,\beta)$, where $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are the shape parameters of the distribution. We carry out Bayesian inference to estimate the posterior predictive distribution of $Y$ given the observed pairwise change in similarity in each sample. The beta distribution is defined for the interval $[0,1]$, whereas our data are in $[-1,1]$. Thus, we normalize the data. We estimate the posterior predictive distribution in each sample using uniform priors for $\alpha$ and $\beta$.  
+
+The interpretation of the posterior predictive distribution of $Y$ is a as follows: Suppose we observe a new pair of languages in Britain and Ireland, which we previously have not explored. What is the expected change in similarity for this pair during epoch 2, taking into account the change in similarity already observed in the data? 
+```{r normalize}
+
+# Normalize the data (between 0 and 1)
+min <- -1
+max <- 1
+
+isles_isles_perm_norm <- lapply(isles_isles_perm, function(x){
+  y <- (x - min)/(max - min) 
+  return (y)})
+```
+
+We define the beta model in `RStan` and perform Bayesian inference. 
+```{r beta model, eval=TRUE}
+
+# Define Beta model 
+beta_model <- "data {
+    int<lower=0> N;
+    real<lower=0,upper=1> y[N];
+  }
+  parameters {
+    real <lower=0> alpha0;
+    real <lower=0> beta0;
+  }
+  model {
+    alpha0 ~ uniform(0, 20);
+    beta0 ~ uniform(0, 20);
+    y ~ beta(alpha0, beta0);
+  }
+  generated quantities{
+    real y_pred;
+    y_pred = beta_rng(alpha0, beta0);
+}"
+
+# Compile Beta model
+stan_beta <- stan_model(model_code=beta_model)
+```
+
+For each of the 1000 random *Isles-isles* samples we perform Bayesian inference for the Beta model. We estimate the posterior predictive distribution for each sample. Figure \ref={fig:beta_isles_isles}  shows an overlay of all posterior predictive distributions of all random samples.  
+
+### Isles-isles
+```{r beta isles isles, eval=TRUE}
+
+beta_isles_isles <- stan_beta_wrapper(isles_isles_perm_norm, stan_beta)
+
+```
+
+```{r plot_beta, fig.cap="Posterior predictive distribution of change in similarity for Isles-isles pairs\\label{fig:beta_isles_isles}"}
+
+# Rescale the RStan results to the original interval
+beta_isles_isles$values = beta_isles_isles$values  * (max-min) + min
+
+# Visualize the posterior distribution
+plot_posterior_density_beta(beta_isles_isles, "lightblue", "Isles - isles")
+```
+
+The similarity between languages in Britain and Ireland tends to increase (Figure \ref{fig:beta_isles_isles}). For a previously unexplored language pair, one would expect to observe an increase in similarity of about $0.3$ during epoch 2. In other words, one would expect around a quarter of all features in the language pair to differ in 1200 A.D. and to be identical in 1900 A.D.
+
+# Discussion 
+
+Our results indicate that during epoch 2 the languages in Britain and Ireland grew  similar to each other and this effect is unlikely to be caused by  chance. Over the same span of time the sampled languages spoken on the continent became more dissimilar to the languages of Britain and Ireland than one would expect if it were by mere coincidence. We take this as evidence that the observed changes testify to the emergence of a linguistic area in britain and Ireland, i.e. a geographic and sociocultural space where languages share particular feature specifications to a degree that is not explainable by shared inheritance, general linguistic tendencies, or chance exclusively, but due to, and/or enhanced by, language contact.
+
+# References
+
+<div id="refs"></div>
+
+# Appendix A {-}
+
+For the Bernoulli model, zero-difference pairs are randomly set to either `0` or `1`. Imagine a sample with only zero-difference pairs. We conclude from the sample that there is neither a loss nor a gain in similarity. Hence, we would expect $p$, the probability of success, to be centered around 0.5. With increasing sampel size, we gain more evidence that $p$ is 0.5. We would expect the variance of the cumulative distribution to decrease. We show in a simulation that randomly setting the similarity to either `0` or `1` for zero-difference pairs yields a cumulative posterior distribution that satisfies both expectations. 
+
+```{r, simulate bernoulli, eval = TRUE}
+
+# Simulate 1000 random samples from a Bernoulli distribution 
+# for sample sizes 5, 10, 20 and 50
+n_samp <- 1000
+
+sample_5 <- lapply(c(1:n_samp), function (x){
+  rbinom(5, size = 1, prob = 0.5)})
+
+sample_10 <- lapply(c(1:n_samp), function (x) {
+  rbinom(10, size = 1, prob = 0.5)})
+
+sample_20 <- lapply(c(1:n_samp), function (x) {
+  rbinom(20, size = 1, prob = 0.5)})
+  
+  
+sample_50 <- lapply(c(1:n_samp), function (x) {
+  rbinom(50, size = 1, prob = 0.5)})
+
+# Run Bernoulli wrapper for each set of the simulated random samples
+bernoulli_sample_5 <- stan_bernoulli_wrapper(sample_5,
+                                             stan_bernoulli)
+
+bernoulli_sample_10 <- stan_bernoulli_wrapper(sample_10,
+                                              stan_bernoulli)
+
+bernoulli_sample_20 <- stan_bernoulli_wrapper(sample_20,
+                                              stan_bernoulli)
+
+
+bernoulli_sample_50 <- stan_bernoulli_wrapper(sample_50,
+                                              stan_bernoulli)
+```
+
+
+```{r, plot_simulation, fig.cap="Posterior density of simulated zero-difference pairs\\label{fig:bernoulli_simulation}"}
+
+# Plot 
+perc_sample_5 <- ecdf(bernoulli_sample_5$values)(0.5)
+plot_sample_5 <- plot_simulated_posterior(bernoulli_sample_5, 
+                                              col = "black", size =5, perc_sample_5) 
+
+perc_sample_10 <- ecdf(bernoulli_sample_10$values)(0.5)
+plot_sample_10 <- plot_simulated_posterior(bernoulli_sample_10, 
+                                               col = "black", size = 10, perc_sample_10) 
+
+perc_sample_20 <- ecdf(bernoulli_sample_20$values)(0.5)
+plot_sample_20 <- plot_simulated_posterior(bernoulli_sample_20, 
+                                               col = "black", size = 20, perc_sample_20) 
+
+perc_sample_50 <- ecdf(bernoulli_sample_50$values)(0.5)
+plot_sample_50 <- plot_simulated_posterior(bernoulli_sample_50, 
+                                               col = "black", size = 50, perc_sample_50) 
+
+# Arrange all plots in one overview plot
+grid.arrange(plot_sample_5, plot_sample_10, plot_sample_20, plot_sample_50, ncol=2,
+             top = paste(
+"Posterior density of simulated zero-difference pairs\n(",
+n_samp, " random samples)", sep=""),
+             left = "Posterior Density", bottom = "Probability of success (p)")
+
+```
+
+The cumulative posterior distribution of the simulated zero-difference pairs is always centered around the value $p = 0.5$. The variance of the distribution decreases with increasing sample size.